Topic / Level 4; clothing [1]
[1] vestis, -is [3/f]: [i] a garment, i.e. a single article / item of clothing; [ii] clothes, clothing = (pl.) vestēs
[i] itaque inter sē commūtant vestem et nōmina (Plautus)
Therefore, they exchange clothes and names with each other.
[ii] quandō ego tibi ancillās, penum, lānam, aurum, vestem, purpuram, bene praebeō nec quicquam egēs (Plautus)
Since I well provide you with maids and pantry goods, wool, gold, clothes, and purple, and you do not lack anything
- aurum, -ī [2/n]: gold
- aureus, -a, -um: golden
- lāna, -ae [1/f]: wool
- purpura, -ae [1/f]: purple [see the next post]
[2] vestīmentum, -ī [2/n]: [i] (sg.) article of clothing; [ii] (pl.) vestīmenta, -ōrum: clothes, clothing
Note: the same singular / plural distinction is preserved in French: vêtement (an article of clothing); vêtements (clothes)
[i] From Plautus:
MENAECHMVS
Agedum odōrāre hanc quam ego habeō pallam. quid olet? …
Come now, smell this cloak I’ve got. What’s it smell like? …
PENICVLVS
Summum olfactāre oportet vestīmentum muliebre, nam ex istōc locō spurcātur nāsum odōre …
One should sniff the top edge of a woman’s garment, because from lower down, the nose gets fouled by the smell.
- palla, -ae [1/f]: the translation as “cloak” does not convey the specific function; it was a type of cloak or loose garment worn by women over the gown (stola, -ae [1/f]) and held together by brooches (fībula, -ae [1/f])
[ii] In Dē Agrī Cultūrā, Cato the Elder refers to the articles of clothing to be issued to farm hands (familiae), and gives us an early example of recycling:
Vestīmenta familiae:
Clothing (allowance) for the hands:
tunicam p. IIIS*,
a tunic of 3½ feet / 3½ feet (long)
[*p: abbreviation for the measurement pedēs (feet); S: abbreviation for sēmis (half) = tunicam pedum trium et semis]
sāga alternīs annīs.
and blankets every other year.
quotiēns cuique tunicam aut sagum dabis, prius veterem accipitō, unde centōnēs fīant.
When you issue the tunic or the blanket to anyone, first take back the old one from which patchwork may be made.
sculpōneās bonās alternīs annīs dare oportet.
A good pair of wooden shoes should be issued every other year.
- centō, -ōnis [3/m]: patchwork; an article of clothing made of several pieces sewn together
- sāgum, -ī [2/n]: [i] military cloak; [ii] (here) a coarse woollen blanket, i.e. a blanket for wrapping around the body
- sculpōneae, -ārum [1/f/pl]: inferior kind of wooden shoe with a thick sole; clog
- tunica, -ae [1/f]: one of the most common items of everyday Roman clothing and worn by men and women of different classes either as an undergarment or as the main article of clothing
Topic / Level 4; clothing [2] The colour purple
[i]
quandō ego tibi ancillās, penum, lānam, aurum, vestem, purpuram, bene praebeō nec quicquam egēs (Plautus)
Since I well provide you with maids and pantry goods, wool, gold, clothes, and purple, and you do not lack anything.
- purpura, -ae [1/f]: purple; here, the character is referring to purple-coloured garments
- purpureus, -a, um: purple
Tyrian purple dye was produced from the secretion of Mediterranean sea snails, especially species of murex, vast numbers of which were needed to produce even a small quantity, thus making purple garments symbols of wealth, prestige and power:
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/06/180724-level-1-bright-white-politicians.html
[ii] However, while the character may be implying that the clothes are expensive, Pliny the Elder, referring to different types of tree, mentions the manufacture of the colour – or something similar to it – by a different process and certainly not for the wealthy:
Nōn nisi in aquōsīs prōveniunt salicēs, alnī, populī, siler, ligustra …, item vaccīnia Ītaliae in aucupiīs sata, Galliae vērō etiam purpurae tinguendae causā ad servitiōrum vestēs
Willows, alders, poplars, the siler and the privet, …, will only grow in places where there is water, and the same is the case with the whortleberry, grown in bird-snares in Italy, but in Gaul also to supply purple dye for slaves' clothes.
[iii] When Jesus is mocked:
et induunt eum purpuram et inpōnunt eī plectentēs spīneam corōnam (Vulgate)
And they clothe him in purple: and, twisting together a crown of thorns, they put it upon him.
One commentator (Wessel) has suggested that it was a scarlet military cloak: “a cast-off and faded rag, but with color enough left in it to suggest the royal purple.”
Topic / Level 4; clothing [3]
[1] vestītus, -ūs [4/m]: clothing, clothes (used collectively)
[2] amictus, -ūs [4/m]: a general term for outer clothing; “a garment that one throws about or on him” (Lewis & Short)
[i]
Itidem habet petasum ac vestītum (Plautus)
He has a travelling hat and clothes just like mine.
[ii]
Crēdō enim tē audīsse, cum apud Caesarem prō populō fieret, vēnisse eō muliebrī vestītū [ablative] virum (Cicero)
For I think you have heard that, when the sacrifice was being performed at Caesar’s house on behalf of the people, a man came there in women’s clothing.
[iii]
Nihil est facilius, quam amictum imitārī alicuius aut statum aut mōtum (Cicero)
Nothing is easier than imitating someone’s dress, posture, or movement.
[iv]
Habēbat amictuī [dative] pallium candidum, quod superne circumiēcerat (Apuleius)
He had a white cloak for a covering, which he had thrown around himself from above [ = over the upper part of his body]
- petasus, -ī [2/m] < Anc. Gk: πέτασος [pétasos], a flat felt hat, with a broad and round brim; originally worn by the Ancient Greeks and Etruscans, the Romans wore a similar hat in the country, and when travelling; “in the city it was generally used only in the theatre, as a protection from the sun” (Thurston Peck); the images are of both Greek and Roman origin
- pallium, -ī [2/n]: cloak, particularly Greek style; “At all periods of Greek life the characteristic outdoor garment, both of men and women, was a mantle or shawl, consisting of a rectangular piece of cloth.” (Smith et al: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities)
The nouns vestītus and amictus are derived from the verbs:
- vestiō, -īre, -īvī / -iī, vestītus [4]: clothe
- amiciō, -īre, amicuī / amixī, amictus [4]: dress; clothe; cover; throw round: “exclusively of upper garments” (Lewis and Short)
From the perfect passive participles of the verbs, we have:
- vestītus, -a, -um: (having been) dressed; clothed
- amictus, -a, um: (having been) dressed; covered
[v]
vīlicus is autem cum corōnā, candidē [adverb] vestītus, lautus exōrnātusque ambulat (Plautus)
But the farm overseer walks about wearing a crown, dressed in dazzling white, smartly and elegantly adorned.
[vi]
Sedēbat in rōstrīs conlēga tuus (1) amictus togā purpureā [ablative], (2) in sellā aureā, (3) corōnātus (Cicero)
Your colleague was sitting on the Rostra, draped in a purple toga, on a golden chair, and crowned.”
The subject of the sentence (conlēga) refers to Caesar. Note the use of the tricolon associating Caesar with three honours: (1) the right to dress in purple, (2) the use of a golden chair, and (3) the wearing of a type of crown.
[3] habitus, -ūs [4/m]: while the noun may refer to clothing, it has a wider range of meanings, such as ‘appearance’ e.g. the person’s demeanour, posture, emotional state or character
[i]
Vērum hoc ūnum tamen cōgitātō : modus omnibus rēbus, soror, optimus est habitū (Plautus)
The translation does not make the meaning of habitus explicit:
But do consider this one fact: moderation in all things is the best policy [ = in terms of appearance], my dear.
[ii] Note the distinction between habitus and vestītus in the following quotation from Cicero:
Erant aēnea duo praetereā signa, nōn maximā vērum eximiā venustāte, virginālī habitū atque vestītū
There were two bronze statues, not very large but of exceptional beauty, in the appearance and dress of a maiden
[4] amiculum, -ī [2/n]: outer garment, often rendered as ‘cloak’
[i]
Amiculum hoc sustolle saltem (Plautus)
At least take up this cloak.
[ii]
Saepe, cum aliquem offēnsum fortūnā vidēret minus bene vestītum, suum amīculum dedit (Nepos)
Often, when he saw somebody ill-treated by fortune and less well dressed [some translations render this as ‘poorly clad’], he gave him his cloak.
[iii]
et, cum tibi virō liceat purpurā in vestem strāgulam ūtī, mātrem familiae tuam purpureum amiculum habēre nōn sinēs, et equus tuus speciōsius īnstrātus erit quam uxor vestīta? (Livy)
And, although you as a husband may use purple for a coverlet will you not allow your wife to have a purple cloak, and your horse will be more splendidly covered than your wife (is) dressed?
- īnstrātus, -a, -um: covered < īnsternō, -ere, īnstrāvī, īnstrātus [3]: cover (over)
- vestis strāgula
At first sight, the use of vestis may suggest that clothing is being referred to, and there are examples of mistranslations. However, the adjective strāgulus, -a, -um describes anything used for spreading over or covering something. In the passage Livy is referring to the use of the colour purple for bed covers, and not clothing. The same meaning is confirmed in Cicero and, again, Livy, both of whom list furnishings:
[iv]
quid praetereā caelātī argentī, quid strāgulae vestis, quid pictārum tabulārum, quid signōrum, quid marmoris apud illum putātis esse? (Cicero)
What quantities besides of embossed plate, of quilts; of paintings, of statues, and of marble, do you think he has in his house? (Cicero)
[v]
iī prīmum lēctōs aerātōs, vestem strāgulam pretiōsam, plagulās … et alia textilia … Rōmam advēxērunt (Livy)
These men brought into Rome for the first time, bronze couches, costly coverlets, tapestry … and other fabrics
- textile, -is [3/n]: fabric; textile
- plagula, -ae [1/f]: dependent upon context, the noun – which is rare – has different meanings: bed cover, bed curtain, tapestry
Topic / Level 4; clothing [4] the Digest of Justinian (1)
The Digest of Justinian is a 6th-century AD compilation of classical Roman legal writings commissioned by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. The extract – which we will look at over three posts - deals with inheritance law regarding personal property, ornaments, and clothing—determining precisely what items belong to specific categories when named in a Roman will.
[i]
Vestīmenta omnia aut virīlia sunt aut puerīlia aut muliebria aut commūnia aut familiārica.
All garments are either for men, for boys (children), for women, common to all, or for the household servants.
- vestīmenta virīlia: men’s clothing
- vestīmenta puerīlia: boys’ / children’s clothing; in the context of the extract, it is boys’ clothing being referred to
- vestīmenta muliebria: women’s clothing
- vestīmenta familiārica: clothing for slaves / household servants
[ii]
virīlia sunt, quae ipsīus patris familiae causā parāta sunt, …
Men’s (clothing) is that provided for the benefit of the head of the household, …
… velutī togae tunicae palliola vestīmenta strāgula amfitapa* et sāga reliquaque similia.
… such as togas, tunics, little cloaks (hoods), bedspreads, rugs, cloaks and other similar items.
- palliolum, -ī [2/n]: little cloak; hood
*amfitapa is a rendering of the Greek word ἀμφιτάπης [amphitapes], a thick rug or carpet with pile on both sides
[iii]
puerīlia sunt, quae ad nūllum alium ūsum pertinent nisi puerīlem …
Boys’ (clothes) are those which are suitable for no other use than that of boys [a more fluent rendering: boys’ clothes are those used only for this purpose] …
… velutī togae praetextae āliculae chlamydēs pallia quae fīliīs nostrīs comparāmus.
… such as toga praetextae, short cloaks, (Greek style) cloaks and mantles that we provide for our sons.
- ālicula, -ae [1/f]: (rare) “a short cloak coming down to the elbows, worn by boys, and spoken of as worn by boys and huntsmen” (Thurston Peck)
- chlamys, -idis [3/f] < Anc. Gk. χλαμύς [khlamús]: a short poncho-like cloak caught up on the shoulder, worn by hunters, soldiers, and horsemen in Ancient Greece
- praetextus, -a, -um: fringed; edged; bordered < praetexō, -ere, praetexuī, praetextus: (in weaving) fringe; edge; border
Before a freeborn Roman boy reached adulthood, he wore an amulet around his neck: bulla, -ae [1/f]; it indicated his freeborn status and was believed to protect him from evil influences. Roman girls wore a similar crescent-shaped amulet known as a lūnula, -ae [1/f] (‘little moon’).
Topic / Level 4; clothing [5] the Digest of Justinian (2) the toga
[1]
toga, -ae [1/f]
togātus, -a, -um
togātus, -ī [2/m]
[2]
toga praetexta
toga virīlis
toga pūra
[3] toga candida
[4] toga pulla
[5]
clāvus, -ī [2/m]
clāvus lātus
lāticlāvius, -a, -um
lāticlāvius, -ī [2/m]
clāvus angustus
angusticlāvius, -a, -um
[1] toga, -ae [1/f]: Contrary to what most people think when they attend fancy dress parties as a Roman, the toga was not ‘everyday’ wear, tunics being the usual everyday garment. It was principally worn for formal, public, and ceremonial occasions, displaying civic status and respectability, e.g. in the forum, at official business, and at religious events.
togātus, -a, -um: dressed in a toga
togātus, -ī [2/m]: a Roman citizen, i.e. the noun specifically distinguishes that status from other non-Roman races
[i]
ipse vērō quem ad modum … passim per forum volitet cum magnā catervā togātōrum vidētis, iūdicēs;
But you see, judges, how he himself flits about all over the Forum, accompanied by a large crowd of citizens [i.e. those dressed in togas] (Cicero)
[ii] A further quotation from Cicero explicitly contrasts cultural identity. The use of the diminutive Graeculus (‘little Greek’) is particularly scathing. That he mentions pallium distinctly refers to a Grecian style cloak:
accipietne excūsātiōnem is quī quaestiōnī praeerit Graeculī iūdicis, modo palliātī, modo togātī?
will the man who presides over the investigation admit the excuse of this Greekling judge, at one time a Greek [literally: dressed in a pallium], and at another a Roman [literally: dressed in a toga]?
- palliātus, -a, -um: dressed in a pallium
[2] toga praetexta: as mentioned in the previous post, freeborn Roman boys wore the toga praetexta with a purple strip. Upon reaching the age of about 15, boys assumed the toga virīlis or toga pūra (the toga of adulthood).
When reading of the toga praetexta, it is often wrongly assumed that this particular type of garment was worn exclusively by boys. In the extract from the Digest of Justinian the toga praetexta is associated only with boys. However, it was also worn by Roman girls until they were married.
[i]
Ēripiēs igitur pūpillae togam praetextam, dētrahēs ōrnāmenta nōn sōlum fortūnae sed etiam ingenuitātis? (Cicero)
Will you, then, strip the orphaned girl of her toga praetexta, and deprive her of the emblems not only of her wealth but also of her free birth?
Cicero uses the feminine form – pūpilla, -ae [1/f] – to refer to the orphan; the masculine form is pūpillus, -ī [2/m].
[ii]
expugnāstī domum, et virginis praetextam scidistī, et puellam usque in eam iniūriam trāxistī (Quintilian)
You stormed the house and tore the maiden’s praetexta, and dragged the girl into that outrage …
[iii] “The praetexta (the insigne of the unmarried girl) performed its function as the counter-part of the stola (the insigne of a married Roman woman). In theory, the stola was put on after the praetexta had been taken off.” (Radicke)
mox, ubi iam facibus cessit praetexta marītīs (Propertius)
soon, when the toga praetexta had already given way to the marriage torches
Unlike the toga praetexta, which was worn by freeborn boys and girls, the toga virilis was worn only by males, marking a boy's transition to manhood and signifying civic status.
The toga praetexta, however, was not only an item of children’s clothing, but worn by magistrates, priests and others who held official positions.
[3] toga candida: does not refer to a specific type of toga, but to its bright, white colour (candidus, -a, -um)
Are your politicians ‘shining white’? Those seeking political office in Ancient Rome liked to give the impression that they were. They wandered around wearing bleached white togas, a symbol of purity. An aspiring politician was known as a candidātus with reference to the shining white colour. And from that we have the word candidate.
[4] toga pulla: made of the natural colour of black wool, it was worn in private mourning
[5]
clāvus, -ī [2/m]: purple stripe, specifically a purple stripe on the tunica
clāvus lātus: broad purple stripe; “it was the distinctive badge of the senatorian order” (Smith et al: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities)
clāvus angustus: narrow purple stripe; “The angustus clavus was a badge of the equestrian order” (ibid.)
lāticlāvius, -a, -um: having a broad (purple) stripe
lāticlāvius, -ī [2/m] the noun refers to the man entitled to wear the broad purple stripe
angusticlāvius, -a, -um: having a narrow (purple) stripe < angustus, -a, -um (narrow)
Both the clāvus lātus and clāvus angustus are discussed in great detail at:
https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:entry=clavus-latus-cn&utm
[i] Note in the following quotation the way in which Livy employs metonymy, a figure of speech that uses some form of attribute to refer to the person who possesses it or is associated with it e.g. a statement from the White House, i.e. the President. Here lātī clāvī (broad purple stripes) and ānulī aureī (gold rings) refer to the Roman senators who wear them, but Livy does not mention them or the article of clothing by name.
tabernae circā forum clausae, iūstitiumque in forō suā sponte coeptum prius quam indictum; lātī clāvī, ānulī aureī positī
The shops around the forum were closed, and a suspension of public business in the forum was begun of its own accord before it was proclaimed; the broad purple stripes and the gold rings were put aside.
- ānulus, -ī [2/m]: ring
[ii] Suetonius comments on the admission of foreigners to the Senate, adding a satirical couplet.
peregrīnīs in senātum allēctīs libellus prōpositus est: 'Bonum factum*: nē quis senātōrī novō cūriam mōnstrāre velit!' et illa vulgō canēbantur:
Gallōs Caesar in triumphum dūcit, īdem in cūriam.
Gallī brācās dēposuērunt, lātum clāvum sūmpserunt.
With foreigners having been admitted into the Senate, a hand-bill was posted: 'Public notice [or: notice is hereby given]: let no one wish to show the Senate House to the new senator!' and those (verses) were being commonly sung:
Caesar leads the Gauls in triumph, the same into the senate-house:
The Gauls have laid aside their breeches / trousers, and taken up the broad purple stripe.
*In the extract, the people are mocking this event, using the shortened formula bonum factum (sit), which was used in official notices to introduce a command.
- brāca, -ae [1/f]; used mainly in the plural (brācae, -ārum): trousers, breeches. The Romans did not wear these. Therefore, the quotation sharply and visibly contrasts the change of status from the Gaul in breeches to the Roman in senatorial garb.
[iii]
Interfuit huic bellō pater meus Suētōnius Laetus, tertiae decimae legiōnis tribūnus angusticlāvius. (Suetonius)
My father, Suetonius Laetus, was in this battle, being at that time a tribune of the equestrian order in the thirteenth legion.
[iv]
ā quōdam lāticlāviō, cuius uxōrem adtrectāverat, prope ad necem caesus (Suetonius)
he was almost beaten to death by a certain senator [i.e. entitled to wear the broad purple stripe], whose wife he had handled indecently
[v]
Līberīs senātōrum, quō celerius reī p(ūblicae) assuēscerent, prōtinus ā virīlī togā lātum clāvum induere et cūriae interesse permīsit …
So that the sons of senators might become more quickly acquainted with public affairs, he permitted them to put on the broad purple stripe immediately after the toga of manhood and to be present in the senate-house …
… ac … bīnōs plērumque lāticlāviōs praeposuit singulīs ālīs (Suetonius)
… and … he commonly put two sons of senators [i.e. the two sons wearing the broad purple stripe] in command of each division.
Topic / Level 4; clothing [6] the Digest of Justinian (3)
[iv]
muliebria sunt, quae mātris familiae causā sunt comparāta, quibus vir nōn facile utī potest sine vituperātiōne, …
Women’s (clothes) are those acquired for the benefit of the matron of the household, which a man cannot easily use without criticism, …
… velutī stolae pallia tunicae capitia zōnae mitrae, quae magis capitis tegendī quam ōrnandī causā sunt comparāta, plagulae paenulae.
… such as robes, wraps, tunics, head coverings, belts, headbands, which have been acquired with a view to covering the head rather than for their decorative effect, coverlets, and (travelling) cloaks.
- capitium, -ī [2/n]: covering for the head
- zōna, -ae [1/f]: see notes at the end of the post
- mitra, -ae [1/f] < Anc. Gk. μίτρα [mítra]: headband; kerchief; (in Asiatic societies) a type of head-dress, turban; note that this is listed under clothing specifically for women and considered inappropriate for a man: “in Greece and Rome worn only by women, except occasionally by effeminate young men” (Lewis & Short)
- paenula, -ae [1/f]: a sleeveless, poncho-like cloak; see the next post
[v]
commūnia sunt, quibus prōmiscuī ūtitur mulier cum virō, velutī sī eiusmodī paenula palliumve est et reliqua huiusmodī, quibus sine reprehēnsiōne vel vir vel uxor ūtātur.
Common are those things which a woman uses jointly with a man, such as when the cloak or the cape is of a kind which either a man or a wife may use without criticism, and other garments of this nature.
[vi]
familiārica sunt, quae ad familiam vestiendam parāta sunt, sīcuti sāga tunicae pēnulae lintea vestīmenta strāgula et cōnsimilia.
Slaves’ clothing is that acquired for dressing the household, such as capes, tunics, cloaks, linen garments, coverlets and the like.
- linteum, -ī [2/n] or līnum, -ī [2/n]: flax; linen cloth; garment made of linen
- linteus, -a, -um, or līneus, -a, -um: (made of) linen
Notes
[1] zōna, -ae [1/f]; also cingulum, -ī [2/n]: both of these words are commonly defined as “belt”, or “girdle” and both may be used with reference to either men or women
For women:
- zōna: a flat and fairly broad girdle worn by unmarried women around the hips; “the zōna was not laid aside until after the wedding, when the bridegroom had unfastened it with his own hands” (Rich)
- cingulum: a band, sash or girdle worn over the tunic and close under the bosom to make the dress sit close on the body
For men:
- zōna: A broad belt worn by men round their loins; “made double or hollow like our shot-belts, for the purpose of carrying money deposited in it” (Rich)
- cingulum: [i] a man’s girdle worn around the waist and outside the tunic and could be used to hang small articles from it and shorten the tunic when the wearer was engaged in active exercise; [ii] a soldier’s belt made of metal or metal-plated leather, worn around the loins to secure the bottom of the cuirass, the defensive armour worn from the neck to the girdle
[2] The extracts give two very good examples of the gerundive:
[i] … mitrae, quae magis capitis tegendī quam ōrnandī causā sunt comparāta
… headbands which have been acquired more for the sake of covering the head than for decorating
- tegō, -ere [3]: cover; protect > tegendus, -a -um: which is / needs to be covered
- ornō, -āre [1]: decorate; adorn > ornandus, -a, -um: which is / needs to be decorated
[ii] familiārica sunt, quae ad familiam vestiendam parāta sunt
Slaves’ clothing is that acquired for dressing the household
vestiō, -īre [4]: clothe > vestiendus, -a, -um: which is / needs to be clothed
Topic / Level 4; clothing [7] the Digest of Justinian (4) paenula, lacerna, birrus, palūdāmentum
When examining original sources, it is not always easy – both in written references and images – to distinguish between similar items of clothing. Moreover, in translation, words such as “cape” and “cloak” do not always adequately convey such distinctions. The three nouns all refer to an outer garment used as protection against wind and cold.
(1) paenula, -ae [1/f]: a sleeveless, poncho-like cloak made of thick cloth that was widely used, could have an integrated hood (cucullus, -ī [2/m]) and was worn across all social classes, from civilians and travellers to soldiers.
[i]
Centunculum vocant nostrī, foliīs ad similitūdinem capitis paenulārum, iacentem in arvīs (Pliny the Elder)
Our people give the name of "centunculus," to a creeping plant that grows in the fields, the leaves of which bear a strong resemblance to the hoods attached to our cloaks.
[ii] from: Topic / Level 4; transport [6]: wheeled vehicles (6) raeda; Cicero and the defence of Milo [i]
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/09/150427-topic-level-4-transport-6.html
Cicero argues that his client was not the instigator of the violence, one the reasons being that Milo – dressed in a heavy, sleeveless cloak –was physically impeded from doing so:
cum hic īnsidiātor, quī iter illud ad caedem faciendam apparāsset, cum uxōre veherētur in raedā, paenulātus, magnō et impeditō et muliebrī ac dēlicātō ancillārum puerōrumque comitātū (Cicero)
While this ‘ambusher’, who had (supposedly) prepared that journey for the purpose of carrying out a killing, was being conveyed in a carriage with his wife, clad in a travelling cloak, with a large and cumbersome and womanish and delicate retinue of maidservants and boys.
- paenulātus, -a, -um: dressed in / wearing a (travelling) cloak
Image #1: Lewis and Short list centunculus as “bindweed” or “knotweed”, its original taxonomic name being polygonum convolvulus and resembles an arrow-head that reflects the hood design of the paenula [images #2-#4].
(2) lacerna, -ae [1/f]: a cloak worn by the Romans over the toga. It differed from the paenula since it was an open garment like the Greek pallium (see: clothing [3]), and fastened on the right shoulder by means of a buckle (fībula), whereas the paenula was described as a vestīmentum clausum with an opening for the head. Thurston Peck notes that it was “practically identical to the chlamys” (see: clothing [4])
(3) birrus, -ī [2/m]: a heavy and coarse cloak or cape with a hood [images #5]. The paenula featured a tighter, more conical hood that could be attached directly to the neckline (giving rise to Pliny's arrowhead leaf comparison), whereas the birrus featured a deep, voluminous, and highly exaggerated hood designed specifically for the torrential downpours of Northern Europe.
(4) palūdāmentum, -ī [2/n]: a military cloak fastened at one shoulder and worn by generals and superior officers over their armour; it differed from the sāgum (see: clothing [1]) worn by the common soldier in being larger, of finer texture and richer colour, either a brilliant white, scarlet, or purple.
Statues often depicted emperors wearing the palūdāmentum [image #6]
[i]
ipse īnsignī palūdāmentō neque procul Agrippīna chlamyde aurātā praesedēre (Tacitus)
The emperor in a splendid military cloak and near him Agrippina in a mantle of gold cloth presided
[ii]
Haec īnsignia atque ōrnāmenta mīlitāria: ideō ad bellum cum exit imperātor ac līctōrēs mūtārunt vestem et signa incinuērunt, palūdātus dīcitur (Varro)
These are distinguishing garments and adornments in the army; therefore when the general goes forth to war and the lictors have changed their clothing and have sounded the signals, he is said to set forth wearing the paludamentum.
- aurātus, -a, -um: gilded; covered / decorate with gold
- mūtō, -āre [1]: change
- vestem / vestīmenta mūtāre: change clothes
- ōrnāmentum, -ī [2/n]: decoration; embellishment; ornament
- palūdātus, -a, -um: dressed in the palūdāmentum (military cloak)
Topic / Level 4; clothing [8] military
The following vocabulary and image is reproduced from:
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/03/210826-level-1-review-vocabulary-9.html
The vocabulary extracted from the list refers to what the soldier actually wore. We will review these, and add vocabulary based on the quotations.
balteus, -ī [2/m]: shoulder belt / sword strap
caliga, -ae [1/f]: military sandal / boot
cingulum, -ī [2/n] mīlitāre: military belt
crista, -ae [1/f]: crest (on helmet)
galea, -ae [1/f]: helmet
lōrīca, -ae [1/f] segmentāta: segmented armour (Roman body armour); sometimes translated as ‘mail’ or ‘breastplate’
ōcrea, -ae [1/f]: greave (leg armour)
[i]
Ī, adfer mihi arma et lōrīcam addūcitō (Plautus)
Go! Get me arms! Bring me a breastplate!
[ii]
in hōc fānō lōrīcās galeāsque aēneās … īdem ille Scīpiō … posuerat (Cicero)
In this temple that same Publius Scipio … had placed breastplates and helmets of brass
- aes, aeris [3/n]: copper; bronze; brass
- aēneus, -a, -um: (made of) copper / bronze / brass
[iii]
... ut dīxit Vibius Crīspus in eum quī, cum lōrīcātus in forō ambulāret, praetendēbat id sē metū facere (Quintilian)
… as Vibius Crispus said against a man who, when he was strolling in the forum wearing a breastplate alleged that he did so because he feared for his life
- loricātus, -a, -um: clothed in mail; wearing a breastplate / body armour
[iv]
.. maculīs quem Thrācius albīs / portat equus cristāque tegit galea aurea rubrā (Virgil)
a piebald Thracian horse [lit: a horse with white spots] carries him, a golden helmet with a crimson crest protects his head.
- macula, -ae [1/f]: spot; maculīs … albīs … equus | literally: a horse with white spots
[v]
etenim mihi caligae eius et fasciae crētātae nōn placēbant (Cicero)
In fact, I didn’t like his military boots and chalk-whitened bindings.
- fascia, -ae [1/f]: any long, narrow strip of cloth used as a bandage or binding with a variety of functions, for example a headband, a protective legging, and for wrapping around a newly-born child, i.e. swaddling clothes. In this context it refers to a binding around the foot to protect the boot from rubbing.
The Winstedt translation renders fascia as puttee, appropriate for a publication in the very early 20th century since it particularly applied at that time to military dress, the term puttee being a loan-word from Hindi (meaning bandage) and referring to a protective covering wrapped round the lower part of the leg.
- crētātus, -a, -um: marked with chalk < crēta, -ae [1/f]: chalk; pipe-clay
“White fasciae, worn by men were a sign of extraordinary refinement in dress: the mode of cleaning them was by rubbing them with a white tenacious earth, resembling our pipe-clay” (William Smith: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities)
dūc in Capitōlia magnum crētātumque bovem (Juvenal)
lead the large bull whitened with chalk to the Capitol
[vi]
tum levīs ocreās ēlectrō aurōque recoctō, / hastamque et clipeī nōn ēnārrābile textum (Virgil)
then the smooth greaves, of electrum and refined gold, / the spear, and the shield’s indescribable detail.
- clipeus, -ī [2/m]: circular or oval shields of leather or bronze covered with metal plates or a sheet of bronze
- ēlectrum, -ī [2/n]: [i] amber; [ii] (here) a mixed metal of gold and silver
- texō, -ere, -uī, textus [3]: various meanings including ‘weave’, ‘knit’, ‘interlace’ or ‘construct’
- textum, -ī [2/n]: referring to something that is braided or woven; here, it describes the intricate metalwork design of the shield
- recoquō, -ere, recoxī, recoctus [3]: [i] recook; [ii] (here) melt; cast; forge again
- recoctus, -a, -um: the translation as ‘refined’ well conveys the reworking of the gold for decorative effect
[vii]
Nec prīncipēs modo colōniārum aut castrōrum ... sed manipulī quoque et gregārius mīles viātica sua et balteōs phalerāsque, īnsignia armōrum argentō decōra, locō pecūniae trādēbant (Tacitus)
Not only the leaders of the colonies or the camps, but also both the units and the common soldier, were – in place of money – handing over their rations, belts, and bosses, signs of honour adorned with silver.
- argentum, -ī [2/n]: silver
- argenteus, -a, -um: (made of) silver
- decōrus, -a, -um: decorated; adorned
- īnsigne, -is [3/n]: (here) badge / sign of honour
- phalerae, -ārum [1/f/pl]: metal disc or boss, especially worn as a military ornament on the breast
[viii] In Dē Linguā Latīnā, Varro explains why items of military dress were given particular names:
(1) lōrīca, quod ē lorīs dē coriō crūdō pectorālia faciēbant;
corselet because they made chest-protectors from thongs of raw hide;
(2) posteā subcīdit gallica ē ferrō sub id vocābulum, ex ānulīs ferrea tunica
afterwards the Gallic (corselet) of iron was included under this name, an iron shirt made of links
(3) balteum, quod cingulum ē coriō habēbant bullātum, …
sword-belt because they used to wear a leather belt having bosses or studs
(4) ocrea, quod oppōnēbātur ob crūs
the shin-guard (was so called) because it was placed against the shin
- bullātus, -a, -um: having bosses or studs
- corium, -ī [2/n]: leather; animal skin
- ferrum, -ī [2/n]: iron
- ferreus, -a, -um: (made of) iron
- ē ferrō: made of iron
- ex ānulīs: made of ‘rings’, i.e. links
- ē coriō: made of leather
- lōrum, -ī [2/n]: (leather) thong
https://archive.org/details/onlatinlanguage01varruoft/page/110/mode/2up?q=ocrea
Topic / Level 4; clothing [9] The Emperor’s New Clothes: Suetonius’ depiction of Caligula
Clothes, of course, do far more than cover and protect the body. Clothes emit psychological “messages”, not only of wealth, status and power, but also of self-assuredness through extravagance, confrontation and unpredictability. In the description of Caligula, Suetonius presents a man who seeks an appearance which is often blatantly god-like. Wealth is displayed by gold, elaborately embroidered clothing, and gem settings. However, Suetonius also indicates Caligula’s effeminacy by referring to items that were specifically worn by women, for example long sleeves, and a woman’s luxurious gown. While consistency of clothing can often give us an insight into a person’s character, it is the inconsistency and variability of the emperor’s clothes that make him seem impenetrable.
What this extract shows is that the vocabulary of clothing extends beyond its mere meaning – which can make it challenging to translate as evocatively as the original Latin. The choice of words has social implications that a Roman reader would have immediately grasped.
Vestītū calceātūque et cēterō habitū neque patriō neque cīvīlī, ac nē virīlī quidem ac dēnique hūmānō semper ūsus est. saepe dēpictās gemmātāsque indūtus paenulās, manuleātus et armillātus in pūblicum prōcessit; aliquandō sēricātus et cycladātus; ac modo in crepidīs vel coturnīs, modo in speculātōriā caligā, nōnnumquam soccō muliebrī; plērumque vērō aureā barbā, fulmen tenēns aut fuscinam aut cādūceum deōrum īnsignia, atque etiam Veneris cultū cōnspectus est. triumphālem quidem ōrnātum etiam ante expedītiōnem assiduē gestāvit, interdum et Magnī Alexandrī thōrācem repetītum ē conditōriō eius. (Suetonius)
[i]
Vestītū calceātūque et cēterō habitū neque patriō neque cīvīlī, ac nē virīlī quidem ac dēnique hūmānō semper ūsus est.
In terms of his clothing, footwear, and the rest of his dress, he always wore what was neither national nor civic, nor even masculine, and in the end, human / mortal.
- calceus, -ī [2/m]: shoe
- calceātus, -ūs [4/m]: shoe; sandal; footwear; it is the noun that is used in the extract
- calceātus, -a, -um: [literally] ‘shoed’ i.e. wearing shoes; provided with shoes
- calceō, -āre [1]: provide with shoes; put on shoes; can also refer to the ‘shoeing’ of animals
Note the repetition of negatives, emphasising what he consistently did not wear. Moreover, that rejection encompasses clothing related to Rome itself:
neque patriō neque cīvīlī, ac nē virīlī quidem ac dēnique hūmānō semper ūsus est.
[ii]
saepe dēpictās gemmātāsque indūtus paenulās, manuleātus et armillātus in pūblicum prōcessit;
He often appeared in public dressed in cloaks, embroidered and decorated with jewels, wearing long sleeves and a bracelet on his arm;
- armilla, -ae [1/f]: bracelet; armband
- armillātus, -a, -um: wearing / decorated with a bracelet
- dēpingō, -ere, dēpīnxī, dēpictus [3]: depict; portray; paint; draw
- dēpictus, -a, -um: depicted; portrayed; painted; (here) embroidered
- gemma, -ae [1/f]: gem; jewel
- gemmātus, -a, -um: set in gems / jewels; decorated with gems / jewels
- induō, -ere, induī, indūtus [3]: put on (an article of clothing)
- indūtus, -a, -um: dressed; covered
- manulea, -ae [1/f]: long sleeve (reaching to the hand)
- manuleātus, -a, -um: having long sleeves, “regarded as a proof of effeminacy” (Lewis & Short)
[iii]
aliquandō sēricātus et cycladātus; ac modo in crepidīs vel coturnīs, modo in speculātōriā caligā, nōnnumquam soccō muliebrī;
sometimes, dressed in silk and dressed in a women’s robe; and sometimes in sandals or knee-length boots, sometimes in a shoe / shoes worn by scouts, sometimes in a woman’s slipper;
- caliga, -ae [1/f]: (military) leather shoe or boot
- caliga speculātōria < speculātōrius, -a, -um: belonging to spies or scouts
- coturnus, -ī [2/m] (or: cothurnus, -ī): a knee-length or calf-length boot, sometimes described as a buskin. Worn by hunters and soldiers to protect the lower leg, it was, in Roman society, also used by actors in performances of tragedy.
- crepida, -ae [1/f]: shoe; sandal
- cȳclas, -adis [3/f]: a luxurious state robe worn by Roman women; that Caligula wore such a garment publicly is not merely a suggestion of his effeminacy, but possibly also a signal of his (perceived) unassailability, i.e. nobody would dare to mock or challenge him.
- cȳcladātus, -a, -um: dressed in a cyclas; one translator unequivocally renders this as “dressed like a woman”
- sēricum, -ī [2/n]: silk
- sēricātus, -a, -um: dressed in silk
- soccus, -ī [2/m]: a low-heeled, light shoe worn by the Greeks; slipper, sock. However, the soccus was also used by comic actors, and so – with the inclusion of both coturnus and soccus – the different images that Caligula could portray are starkly contrasted.
Notes
(1) in [ii] and [iii] the repetition of perfect passive endings that present a rapid-fire and unified image:
saepe dēpictās gemmātāsque indūtus paenulās, manuleātus et armillātus; aliquandō sēricātus et cycladātus;
(2) in [iii] a list of almost synonymous adverbs that emphasise the unpredictability of Caligula:
aliquandō sēricātus et cycladātus; ac modo in crepidīs vel coturnīs, modo in speculātōriā caligā, nōnnumquam soccō muliebrī
[iv]
plērumque vērō aureā barbā, fulmen tenēns aut fuscinam aut cādūceum deōrum īnsignia, atque etiam Veneris cultū cōnspectus est.
And generally with a golden beard, holding a thunderbolt or a trident or a staff, the marks of distinction of the gods and was even seen in the attire of Venus.
Suetonius’ choice of objects unquestionably indicates Caligula’s assumption of divine status:
- barba, -ae [1/f]: beard
- cādūceum, -ī [2/n] or cādūceus, -ī [2/m]: staff or mace carried by Greek ambassadors and heralds in time of war; the staff of Mercury
- cultus, -ūs [4/m]: (here) external appearance; style of dress; clothing.
- fulmen, -inis [3/n]: thunderbolt; the symbol of Jupiter
- fuscina, -ae [1/f]: trident; (usually) three-pronged fork; the symbol of Neptune
Suetonius shows the extent to which Caligula will present himself as god-like by leaving the most dramatic to the end:
[v]
etiam Veneris cultū cōnspectus est
and was even seen in the attire of Venus
[vi]
triumphālem quidem ōrnātum etiam ante expedītiōnem assiduē gestāvit, interdum et Magnī Alexandrī thōrācem repetītum ē conditōriō eius.
In fact, he continually wore a triumphal decoration, even before his expedition, and sometimes even the breast-plate of Alexander the Great, taken out of his coffin.
- gerō, -ere, gessī, gestus [3]: the common verb for wear; here, we have the frequentative form: gestō, -āre [1]: wear; the verb indicates that an action was performed repeatedly, emphasised in the extract by the adverb assiduē (continually)
- thōrāx, -cis [3/m]: breastplate
- ōrnātus, -ūs [4/m]: ornament; decoration; feature; one translation renders triumphālem ... ōrnātum as “the uniform of a triumphant general”
The self-aggrandizement of Caligula is boundless: he wears a sign of victory before the battle has been won, and not only equates himself with Alexander the Great but – outrageously – removes Alexander’s breastplate from his coffin.
Despite his displays of god-like power, Caligula was assassinated in AD41.
We cannot leave Caligula and his costume displays without briefly examining his name. His full name was Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus. However, at the age of four or five, Gaius accompanied his father, mother and siblings on campaign in Germania. Although he had been named after Gaius Julius Caesar, his father's soldiers affectionately nicknamed him Caligula (little boot):
caliga, -ae [1/f]: military boot
> Caligula: the diminutive form, i.e. little boot
Topic / Level 4; clothing [10] footwear
References to footwear have been made in several previous quotations. Here, we will compile them, and include a further two.
(1) Image set #1: depictions of Roman footwear from the Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary (Anthony Rich). Note that, although these are line drawings, they are all based upon original sources identified in each entry.
(2) solea, -ae [1/f]: sandal; sole of a shoe
Image #2: Roman mosaic with the inscription 'BENE LAVA' (Wash well), from the entrance of the bathhouse in the city of Timgad, Algeria. 1- 2 cent. AD. The mosaic also indicates what you should wear: soleae
In Suetonius’ description of Nero, solea is used to refer to horseshoes although these were bound to the horse’s hoof, not fastened with nails. That the shoes are made of silver is an obvious sign of extravagance.
[i]
nūllam vestem bis induit ...
He put on no article of clothing twice ...
[ii]
piscātus est rēte aurātō et purpurā coccōque fūnibus nexīs.
He went fishing with a golden net, drawn by cords of purple and scarlet.
- coccum, -ī [2/n]: (here) scarlet dye; cloth dyed in that colour
[iii]
numquam minus mīlle carrūcīs fēcisse iter trāditur, soleīs mūlārum argenteīs,
It is said that he never travelled with less than a thousand baggage-carts, the shoes of the mules being of silver,
[iv]
canusīnātīs mūliōnibus, armillātā phalerātāque Māzacum turbā atque cursōrum
with the mule drivers dressed in Canusian* wool, and a throng of Mazacans and footmen with bracelets (on their arms) and military decorations
*The reference is to the town of Canusium, well-known for its fine wool.
(3) perō, -ōnis [3/m]: a boot or high shoe made of rawhide, not associated with the wealthy
[i] According to Juvenal, a rugged country person content with cheap, heavy winter boots is immune to greed and corruption:
nīl vetitum fēcisse volet, quem nōn pudet altō per glaciem pērōne tegī
He will want to have done nothing forbidden, who is not ashamed to be protected by a high boot through the deep ice.
[ii]
cum fluvium trānscenderēmus, quī forte praeter viam dēfluēbat, pērōnibus suīs ab aquae madōre cōnsulēns ipse quoque īnsuper lumbōs meōs īnsiliēns residēbat (Apuleius)
when we were crossing a river, which by chance was flowing by the road, he himself, taking thought for his own boots [to keep them] away from the wetness of the water [ = to save his boots from the water], would, leaping upon my loins, stay seated.
Topic / Level 4; clothing [11] commemorating the Ides of March – with a cap
The simplest of objects – with the greatest significance:
pilleus, -ī [2/m]: felt cap
pilleātus, -a, -um: wearing a felt cap
Even for those not studying the history of Rome, the most famous – or infamous – event is the assassination of Julius Caesar who, on the Ides of March (March 15th) 44 BC, was stabbed to death as a result of a conspiracy involving around 60, including Caesar's associates Brutus and Cassius.
While contemporary literature and historical accounts confirm this date, the event was famously recorded in metal when a bold commemorative coin was issued by Brutus two years later.
In earlier posts, reference has been made to the “messages” that clothing could convey in ancient Rome—for example, the broad purple stripes of senators or the specific garments associated with women. On this coin, clothing takes center stage as a political weapon.
EID MAR are abbreviations for EIDIBVS MARTIIS (on the Ides of March). Between the daggers used by the conspirators, the coin centrally features a pil(l)eus, the traditional felt cap given to freed slaves, and symbolic – in the view of the conspirators at least - of the liberty won through the death of the dictator.
The depiction of Brutus on the coin is also bitterly ironic given that one of the justifications for the assassination was that Caesar himself had had a coin minted with his head on it, the first living Roman ever to do so.
[i]
ut ego hodiē rāsō capite calvōs capiam pilleum (Plautus)
so that today, with my head shaved, I may stick my bald head in a freeman's cap
[ii]
Neque inūtile erit caput adtōnsum habēre idque … superinpositō pilleō vēlāre (Celsus)
And it will not be useless to have the head shaved and to cover it with a cap placed on top.
- vēlō, -āre [1]: cover
[iii]
pilleātī aut lānā albā vēlātīs capitibus volōnēs epulātī sunt (Livy)
Wearing caps or with heads wrapped in white wool [ = white woollen headbands] the volunteers feasted, some reclining, and some standing served and ate at the same time.
- vēlātus, -a, -um: covered; wrapped; veiled
[iv] Livy refers to the comments of the historian Polybius with regard to King Prusias:
Polybius eum rēgem indignum maiestāte nōminis tantī trādit; pilleātum, capite rāsō, obviam īre lēgātīs solitum lībertumque sē populī Rōmānī ferre: ideō īnsignia ōrdinis eius gerere;
Polybius records that he was a king unworthy of the majesty of so great a name; that he was accustomed to go to meet the ambassadors wearing a felt cap, with a shaved head, and to call himself a freedman / freed slave of the Roman people: and for that reason he wore the tokens of that class.
[v] Giving the location of a “lustful” tavern, Catullus writes:
Salāx taberna … / ā pilleātīs nōna frātribus pīla,
Lustful tavern … / the ninth column from the felt-capped brothers
The frātrēs pilleātī to whom Catullus refers are Castor and Pollux, the half-brothers very frequently depicted wearing an egg-shaped pilleus since, in mythology, they had been born from an egg. In the poem, Catullus is referring to the Temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum.
[vi] From the Renaissance: Orbis Pictus of Comenius (1659)
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/05/241126-comenius-1658-lxxv-bath-1-text.html
In the stripping-room, | in apodytēriō,
we put off our clothes, | exuimus vestēs,
and are tyed about | & praecingimur
with an apron, | castulā,
We cover our head | tegimus caput
with a cap, | pīleolō,
- castula, -ae [1/f]: this is a good example of a feature that occurs quite often in the work of Comenius, namely the adaptation of a Classical Latin noun to convey a contemporary – in this case 17th century – idea . The original CL meaning refers to a type of petticoat, a garment used by women, whereas Comenius uses the word to describe an apron.
- exuō, -ere, -uī, exūtus [3]: (here) take off (of clothes)
pīleus is an alternative spelling of pilleus; here, it is in its diminutive form: pīleolus / pilleolus, a little cap, which Comenius uses to describe a cap to be worn in a bath house. The noun is rare but attested in Classical Latin:
Et cum autumnus incesserit, ante quam frīgus cacūmina adūrat, omnia folia dēcerpere expediet et ita crassis harundinibus, quae ab ūnā parte nōdōs integrōs habent, quasi pilleolōs induere (Columella)
When autumn has come on, before the cold nips the tops, it will be advantageous to strip off all the foliage and thus cover the trees with thick reeds, which have their knots intact on one side like little caps
Topic / Level 4; clothing [12]
Excerpts from Tacitus on Germany and its tribes:
Tegumen omnibus sāgum fībulā aut, sī dēsit, spīnā cōnsertum:
A cloak is a covering for all, fastened with a brooch or, if that is lacking, with a thorn:
gerunt et ferārum pellēs,
They also wear the skins of wild animals,
ēligunt ferās et dētracta vēlāmina spargunt maculīs pellibusque bēluārum,
They choose wild animals and sprinkle the coverings [= (here) skins] that have been stripped off with spots and the skins [ = the spotted skins] of beasts.
nec alius fēminīs quam virīs habitus, nisi quod fēminae saepius līneīs amictibus vēlantur eōsque purpurā variant,
And women do not have dress that is different from men, except that women are more often covered with linen garments and vary them with purple,
partemque vestītūs superiōris in manicās nōn extendunt,
and they do not extend part of their upper clothing into sleeves.
- manica, -ae [1/f]: sleeve
- tegumen, -inis [3/n]; also: tegimen, -inis [3/n]: covering; cover
- vēlāmen, -inis [3/n]: “a general term for a loose covering for the person” (Thurston Peck) e.g. clothing, robe, garment, veil
- vēlum, -ī [2/n]: [i] clothe, cover, veil; [ii] (ship’s) sail, esp. in plural: vēla
