[5] video: Vincent’s complete recitation with lines scanned and key points noted.
Take away:
dactyl(ic)
spondee
anceps
hexameter
/i/ + V: either ia / io or i-a / i-o
diphthong
long by nature i.e. always long in any form of written or spoken Latin
long by position: [i] VCC; [ii] V+X[ks] i.e. becomes long in verse
elision: -(V) ͜ V- / -(V) + (h)V
[3] Elision
[l.5] Īn cāe-¦ l(o) ͜ ūt tēr- ¦ rīs fī- ¦ āt tŭ-ă ¦ clā-ră vŏ- ¦ lūn-tās [īn cāe-loūt]
[i] -V ͜ V- i.e. a vowel at the end of a word and a vowel at the beginning of the next word are usually elided; the term is elision, and you can see that the end vowel is not scanned as it is either generally omitted when speaking or spoken rapidly together with the next vowel so that it forms one syllable:
[l.8] Īn-nŭ-mĕ- ¦ r(a) ͜ īn-dūl- ¦ gēns ēr- ¦ rō- rīs ¦ dē-bĭ-tă ¦ prā-vī [-mĕ-¦ r’īn-dūl-]
[ii] Elision also occurs when the following letter is /h/ [V + hV]; /h/ is considered silent
[l.6] Vī-tā- ¦ līsqu(e) ͜ (h)ŏ- dĭ- ¦ ē sānc- ¦ tī sūb- ¦ stān-tĭ-ă ¦ pā-nĭs [līs qu’ŏ-dĭ-]
[4] Reciting the verse
It’s all very well talking about long and short syllables – but how are they actually said? Any poem in whatever language is open to interpretation, including the mood in which it is spoken, its pace and what the speaker wishes to emphasise. But you need to start somewhere to get the basic rhythms. The opening lyrics of “Paperback Writer” by the Beatles is comprised almost completely of crotchets (a single beat) and quavers (half a beat). Imagine you’re back in Primary Music class! Clap your hands, kids …
one ¦ and a ¦ two ¦ and a ¦ three ¦ and a ¦ four
Omit the first and last words:
(Dear) ¦ Sir or Ma-dame will-you read my book-it took-me years to write, will-you take-a (look)?
Image #2: The notation is from the sheet music; the Beatles ‘play around’ a little with some of the rhythms when they sing it, but you can hear the long and short beats in the same way that you can hear the long and short syllables of the Latin work. Don’t sing it – say it, while tapping a pencil on the table. Then keep tapping that pencil and say the Latin line, and you’ll be getting pretty close to a Roman.
[2] Identifying long and short vowels
A syllable is defined as long or short dependent upon the length of the vowel sound. How do you know if a syllable is long or short? There are two important terms to note:
[i] long by nature i.e. the vowel is always long – not only in poetry – for example:
[l.2] NŌ-mĭ-nĭs ¦ Ō-rĀ- ¦ mūs vĕ-nĕ- ¦ rĀ- tiŌ ¦ sĀnc- tĭ- fĭ- ¦ cĒ-tŭr
Diphthongs are always long, for example:
[l.1] cĀE-lī
[l.4] rĕ-¦ clĀU-dăt
[l.9] Ēt nōs ¦ hĀUt ă-lĭ-¦ tēr cōn- ¦ cē-dĕ-rĕ ¦ fŌE-nŏ-ră ¦ nōs-trīs
[l.10] Tē-trī ¦ sĀE-vă prŏ- ¦ cūl tēmp- ¦ tā-tiō ¦ dĀE-mŏ-nĭs ¦ āb-sĭt
[l.11] ĀE-quĕ mă- ¦
[ii] long by position; this is a crucial feature of Latin poetry:
Where a vowel is followed by two consonants [VCC] – even if those consonants are split between words –the vowel becomes long; there are exceptions but it is important to become familiar with this idea since it is an integral part of the rhythm.
[l.2] The verb ŌrĀmus has two vowels that are long by nature – they are always long. However, -mus is usually short, but in the verse, because it is followed by two consonants, it becomes long: ō-rā- ¦ mŪS ͜ Vĕ-nĕ- [VCC]
All the capitalised vowels in bold are normally short, but here they are long [VCC]:
[l.1] genitor (/o/ usually short) > gĕ-nĭ- ¦ tŌR ͜ Rĕ- [VCC]; in (/i/ usually short) > ĪN ¦ Vēr [VCC]
[l.3] ĪN ͜ Nō- ¦ bīs Pă- tĕr ¦ ĀL-Tĕ tŭ- ¦ ī: trĀN- ¦ QU-ĪL-Lă-quĕ ¦ mŪN-Dō
[l.5] fīat (/a/normally short) > fī- ¦ ĀT ͜ Tŭ-ă
[l.11] tol-lat (/o/ normally short) > tŌL-Lat
[iii] V + X: a vowel followed by /x/ becomes long since /x/ is composed of two consonant sounds /ks/:
[l.7] mox (normally short) > tŭ-ă ¦ mŌX [V + /ks/]
Even today horses used by, for example, the police are trained to stay calm when experiencing noise and / or violent behaviour. Similarly, the unknown author of Dē Bellō Āfricō describes the training of elephants for warfare. Elephants are easily startled and, like any other wild animal, may act unpredictably. Therefore, what we read here is a training scenario emulating an attack by projectiles fired by slings.
The elephants are lined up facing soldiers who act as the enemy. Behind the elephants are ‘friendly’ soldiers. The aim is to ensure that, even if the animals, frightened by the enemy action, turn tail and head for ‘their side’, they will be forced by a second volley of stones to turn around again and continue to advance towards the enemy. As the author implies, it’s a high risk tactic since elephants do not know whose side they are on!
The adjective rudis has multiple meanings including: untrained, coarse, awkward or wild. In other words, elephants are not quick on the uptake, and considerable patience is required.
Scīpiō interim elephantōs hōc modō condocefacere īnstituit.
Duās īnstrūxit aciēs,
ūnam funditōrum contrā elephantōs,
quae quasi adversāriōrum locum obtinēret
et contrā eōrum frontem adversam lapillōs minūtōs mitteret;
deinde in ōrdinem elephantōs cōnstituit,
post illōs autem suam aciem īnstrūxit ut,
cum ab adversāriīs lapidēs mittī coepissent
et elephantī perterritī sē ad suōs convertissent,
rūrsus ab suā aciē lapidibus missīs eōs converterent adversus hostem.
Quod aegrē tardēque fīēbat;
rudēs enim elephantī multōrum annōrum doctrīnā ūsūque vetustō vix ēdoctī
tamen commūnī perīculō in aciem prōdūcuntur.
Some basics of Latin poetry were first discussed here:
04.09.25: The best place to start Latin poetry is … in a cave! [2]; some basics concerning Classical Latin poetry
https://www.facebook.com/groups/latinforstarters/posts/774016828542921/
[i] In print, you will either come across completely unscanned versions of verse or, as I have written below, edited texts with naturally long vowels marked (see the next post: identifying long and short syllables)
Sīdereō genitor residēns in vertice caelī
Nōminis ōrāmus venerātiō sānctificētur
In nōbīs Pater alte tuī: tranquillaque mundō
Adveniat rēgnumque tuum lūx alma reclaudat
In caelō ut terrīs fīat tua clāra voluntās
Vītālisque hodiē sānctī substantia pānis
Prōveniat nōbīs; tua mox largītiō solvat
Innumera indulgēns errōris dēbita prāvī
Et nōs haut aliter concēdere foenora nostrīs
Tētrī saeva procul temptātiō daemonis absit
Aequē malīs tua nōs in lūcem dextera tollat
[ii] A fully scanned version would have this or a similar format:
l.1: Sī-dĕ-rĕ- ¦ ō gĕ-nĭ- ¦ tōr rĕ-sĭ- ¦ dēns īn ¦ vēr-tĭ-cĕ ¦ cāe-lī
l.2: Nō-mĭ-nĭs ¦ ōr-ā- ¦ mūs vĕ-nĕ- ¦ rā- tiō ¦ sānc- tĭ- fĭ- ¦ cē-tŭr
l.3: Īn nō- ¦ bīs pă- tĕr ¦ āl-tĕ tŭ- ¦ ī: trān- ¦ qu-īl-lă-quĕ ¦ mūn-dō
l.4: Ād-vĕ-nĭ- ¦ āt rēg- ¦ nūm-quĕ tŭ- ¦ ūm lūx ¦ āl-mă rĕ- ¦ clāu-dăt
l.5: Īn cāe- ¦ l(o) ͜ ūt tēr- ¦ rīs fī- ¦ āt tŭ-ă ¦ clāră vŏ- ¦ lūn-tās
l.6: Vī-tā- ¦ līs-qu(e) ͜ (h)ŏ-dĭ- ¦ ē sānc- ¦ tī sūb- ¦ stān-tĭ-ă ¦ pā-nĭs
l.7: Prō-vĕ-nĭ- ¦ āt nō- ¦ bīs; tŭ-ă ¦ mōx lār- ¦ gī-tiō ¦ sōl-văt
l.8: Īn-nŭ-mĕ- ¦ r(a) ͜ īn-dūl- ¦ gēns ēr- ¦ rō-rīs ¦ dē-bĭ-tă ¦ prāvī
l.9: Ēt nōs ¦ hāut ă-lĭ-¦ tēr cōn- ¦ cē-dĕ-rĕ ¦ fōe-nŏ-ră ¦ nōs-trīs
l.10: Tē-trī ¦ sāe-vă prŏ- ¦ cūl tēmp- ¦ tā-tiō ¦ dāe-mŏ-nĭs ¦ āb-sĭt
l.11: Āe-quĕ mă- ¦ līs tŭ-ă ¦ nōs īn ¦ lū-cēm ¦ dēx-tĕ-ră ¦ tōl-lăt
As an example. The links below are to a poem V by Catullus:
[i] The first link takes you to a completely unscanned version
http://rudy.negenborn.net/catullus/text2/l5.htm
[ii] The second takes you to a scanned version
http://rudy.negenborn.net/catullus/text2/sc5.htm
[1] Metre
References are made here to long and short syllables; that is discussed in the next post
Vincent describes the verse as dactylic hexameter:
(1) a dactyl is a long syllable followed by two short syllables: — UU
Line 1: SĪ-DĔ-RĔ- ¦ ō gĕ-nĭ- ¦ tōr rĕ-sĭ- ¦ dēns īn ¦ vēr-tĭ-cĕ ¦ cāe-lī
(2) Two short syllables can equal one long syllable i.e. — UU = — — ; a combination of two long syllables is known as a spondee
Sī-dĕ-rĕ- ¦ ō gĕ-nĭ- ¦ tōr rĕ-sĭ- ¦ (2) DĒNS ĪN ¦ vēr-tĭ-cĕ ¦ cāe-lī
Combinations, six feet of six dactyls or spondees, is known as hexameter.
[1] Sī-dĕ-rĕ- ¦ [2] ō gĕ-nĭ- ¦ [3] tōr rĕ-sĭ- ¦ [4] dēns īn ¦ [5] vēr-tĭ-cĕ ¦ [6] cāe-lī
(3) The last syllable of a line can be long or short; this is usually indicated by X i.e. — X; a syllable of this type is called an anceps
[i] In the first line, the final syllable is long:
Sī-dĕ-rĕ- ¦ ō gĕ-nĭ- ¦ tōr rĕ-sĭ- ¦ dēns īn ¦ vēr-tĭ-cĕ ¦ cāe-LĪ
[ii] In Line 2 the final syllable is short:
Nō-mĭ-nĭs ¦ ōr-ā- ¦ mūs vĕ-nĕ- ¦ rā- tiō ¦ sānc- tĭ- fĭ- ¦ cē-TŬR
When a poem is scanned, sometimes no mark is given above an anceps because it makes no difference.
[iii] Note that /i/ when it is with another vowel e.g. -iō- or -ia- can, depending on the rhythm, be [a] similar to English /y/ and not scanned separately, or [b] a separate vowel sound
[a]
[l.2] vĕ-nĕ- ¦ rā- tiō [imagine ve-ne-¦ ra-tyo (or -tjo- as written in some scans)]
[l.7] lār- ¦ gī-tiō
[l.10] tēmp- ¦ tā-tiō
[b]
[l.4] the /i/ is scanned as an independent vowel: Ād-vĕ-nĭ- ¦ āt i.e. it is pronounced distinctly seperately from the following /a/
[l.6] sūb- ¦ stān-tĭ-ă
[l.7] Prō-vĕ-nĭ- ¦ āt
Vincent recites the Pater Noster of Juvencus (c. 330 AD)
[l.1] Sīdereō genitor residēns in vertice caelī │ Creator / Father sitting in the starry summit of heaven
[l.2] Nōminis ōrāmus venerātiō sānctificētur │ May the reverence of (your) name, we pray, be sanctified
A prayer by its nature is often expressing what someone wants to happen e.g. in English “May he rest in peace”. In Latin this is conveyed by the subjunctive, and the verse contains many examples of it: sānctificētur: May (the reverence of your name) be sanctified.
[l.3] In nōbīs ¦ Pater alte ¦ tuī: tranquillaque mundō │ Father on High, (bring) peaceful things of yours / your peace in us and in the world
pater alte: vocative case < altus, -a, -um: high
[l.4] Adveniat rēgnumque tuum lūx alma reclaudat │ May your kingdom come and the nourishing light disclose.
Adveniat rēgnum … tuum: May your kingdom come; subjunctive
lūx alma reclaudat: may the nourishing light disclose
[l.5] In caelō ut terrīs fīat clāra voluntās │ In heaven as on earth (the lands) may your will be made / become clear
fīat clāra voluntās: May (your) will become clear; subjunctive
[l.6] Vītālisque hodiē sānctī substantia pānis │ And today the vital substance of the holy bread
Note the word order:
(1) Vītālisque hodiē (2) sānctī (1) substantia (2) pānis
(1) (and) the vital substance (2) of the holy bread
Because of the case endings, Latin words – especially in verse – are often not written together; in poetry this is known as hyperbaton; a writer may do this to conform to the rhythm and / or to create a particular effect e.g. to emphasise certain words or ideas or, in this line (I suspect), to produce alliteration (the repetition of the same initial sound, usually a consonant) i.e. sānctī substantia (pānis)
[l.7] Prōveniat nōbīs; tua mox largītiō solvat │ May it come (forth) to us; may your generosity soon bestow it
[l.8] Innumera indulgēns errōris dēbita prāvī │ Indulging (i.e. being lenient towards / pardoning / forgiving) the countless debts of wicked error
Again, note the word order as an example of hyperbaton (see the note to l.6)
(1) Innumera ¦ indulgēns ¦ (2) errōris (1) dēbita prāvī
indulging ¦ the (1) countless debts (2) of wicked error
And again, you see the word order manipulated to create alliteration: Innumera ¦ indulgēns; the repetition of vowel and consonants extends throughout the line:
Innumera ¦ indulgēns ¦ (2) errōris (1) dēbita prāvī
For reference, there are three terms used to describe this poetic device:
However, they rarely appear in such strict divisions, but, like line 8 above, as a combination of devices. One example alone from our era shows how effective such poetic devices can be, an example of sheer genius: excerpt from the “Witch’s Rap” in the Sondheim musical Into the Woods. The Baker’s father steals from the Witch’s garden; note how she growls, hisses, fumes and spits her words!
Greens greens and nothing but greens! / Parsley, peppers, cabbages, and celery, / Asparagus and watercress / And fiddleferns and lettuce. / He said "Alright!" / But it wasn't quite. / Cause I caught him / In the autumn / In my garden one night!
You’re not often going to come across such relentless intensity, but it’s useful to know the terms when instances of such poetic devices occur.
[l.9] Et nōs haut aliter concēdere foenora nostrīs │ no differently than we grant debts to our own (people) [i.e. we do not treat others using different terms]; Compare ll8-9 with the standard version of the prayer (Church of Scotland): Forgive us our debts / as we forgive our debtors
The same lines from the Book of Cerne (9th century): Forgive countless debts of our wicked errors, / no different than we pardon our debtors.
[l.10] Tētrī saeva procul temptātiō daemonis absit │ May the savage temptation of the foul demon be far away
(1) Tētrī (2) saeva [procul] (2) temptātiō (1) daemonis
(2) the savage temptation (1) of the foul demon
[l.11] Aequē malīs tua nōs in lūcem dextera tollat │ Equally may your right hand raise us / lift us up from evils into the light
tua nōs in lūcem dextera: your right hand …
[6] Two nouns that are very similar to one another:
[i] pecus, pecoris [3/n]: collective noun referring to large domestic animals e.g. livestock; a herd of cattle etc.
The meaning may be extended to refer to any group of animals, including a flock of birds:
volātile pecus (Columella) | ‘winged / flying livestock’, i.e. flock of birds
[ii] pecus, pecudis [3/f]: a single head of cattle
Varro (Dē Rē Rūsticā) divides animal husbandry into a nine part matrix under three headings, each category comprising three specific types:
[1] smaller livestock: sheep, goats, pigs
[2] larger livestock: cattle / oxen; donkeys; horses
[3] animals – and people – not kept for direct profit but rather on account of the livestock e.g. dogs / shepherds to protect them) or derived from the livestock e.g. mules
est scientia pecoris parandī ac pāscendī | there is a knowledge of tending and feeding livestock
ut frūctūs quam possint maximī capiantur ex eō | ... so that the greatest profits are obtained from it..
Ea partēs habet novem, | It has nine divisions,
discrētās ter ternās, | separated into three groups of three,
ut sit ūna dē minōribus pecudibus | so that one is concerned with smaller livestock,
cuius genera tria ovēs, capra, sūs, | whose three kinds are the sheep, goat, and pig,
altera dē pecore maiōre, | the other with larger livestock
in quō sunt item ad trēs speciēs nātūrā discrētī: | in which there are likewise three species divided by their nature:
bovēs, asinī, equī. | cattle, donkeys, and horses.
Tertia pars est in pecuāriā quae nōn parantur | The third part consists of those animals in cattle-raising which are not kept
ut ex iīs capiātur frūctus, | so that profit may be obtained from them,
sed propter eam aut ex eā. | but [are kept] on account of it or as a result of it.
Sunt mūlī, canēs, pāstōrēs. | They are mules, dogs, and shepherds.
To give you an idea of the direction in which this set of posts is going, the ability to scan a Latin poem and to analyse its effects are requirements of the UK A Level (post-16) Latin examination.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3z_QAPB3XeA
Vīvāmūs mĕă Lēsbĭ[a] ͜ ātqu[e] ͜ ămēmŭs
rūmōrēsquĕ sĕnūm sĕvērĭōrŭm
ōmnēs ūnĭŭs aēstĭmēmŭs āssĭs
dā mī bāsĭă mīllĕ deīndĕ cēntŭm
deīn mīll[e] ͜ āltĕră deīn sĕcūndă cēntŭm
Deīnd[e] ͜ ūsqu[e] ͜ āltĕră mīllĕ deīndĕ cēntŭm
deīn cūm mīlĭă mūltă fēcĕrīmŭs
cōntūrbābĭmŭs īllă nē scĭāmŭs
aūt nē quīs mălŭs īnvĭdērĕ pōssĭt
cūm tāntūm scĭăt ēssĕ bāsĭōrŭm
(Catullus V)
Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love,
and let us judge all the rumors of the old men
to be worth just one penny!
Give me a thousand kisses, then another hundred,
then another thousand, then a second hundred,
then yet another thousand more, then another hundred.
Then, when we have made many thousands,
we will mix them all up so that we don't know,
and so that no one can be jealous of us when he finds out
how many kisses we have shared.
The composer, Farya Faraji, makes the following comment: “In my opinion, the best place to start for reconstructing their music is the poetry: Ancient Roman poetry used the interplay of long vs short vowel lengths and stress accent to create rythmic effects to the poetry, not unlike modern rap does.”
And that’s where we’re going to start – not with Catullus, but with a verse from the 4th century. We’ll meet Catullus – and his fairweather friends – later. The following posts will look at the 4th century Pater Noster of Juvencus (recited by Vincent).
You have already seen a number of correlatives used in specific grammatical and syntactical constructions, notably [1] the subjunctive of purpose, and [2] under the heading of pronominal adjectives:
[1]
adeō … ut …
ita … ut …
sīc … ut …
tālis … ut …
tam … ut …
tantus … ut …
tot … ut …
2.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [40] dependent uses [2] result [i]
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/02/220526-level-3-subjunctive-40-dependent.html
Tam fortis est ¦ ut hostēs vincat │ He is so brave ¦ that he conquers the enemy
Puerī tālia verba clāmant ¦ ut mātrēs audīre nōlint. │ The boys are shouting such words ¦ that the mothers refuse to listen.
Tot mīlitēs urbem oppugnant ¦ ut valdē timeāmus. │ So many soldiers are attacking the city ¦ that we are very afraid.
Tantus clāmor est ¦ ut cīvēs ōrātōrem nōn audiant. │ The noise is so great ¦ that the citizens do not hear the speaker.
Rōmam adeō amat ¦ ut semper hīc habitāre velit. │ He loves Rome to such an extent ¦ that he always wants [lit: would always want] to live here.
Mūrōs ita aedificant ¦ ut hostēs eōs dēlēre nōn possint. │ They build the walls in such a way ¦ that the enemies cannot destroy them.
Sīc pugnat vēnātor ¦ ut leō fugiat. │ The hunter fights in such a way ¦ that the lion flees.
[2]
alter … alter …
alius … alius …
[i] 31.07.25: Level 3; pronominal adjectives [8](2); alter … alter: the one … the other
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/05/310725-level-3-pronominal-adjectives-82.html
Alter lēgātus hostēs moenibus prohibēre, alter incolās convocāre coepit │ One commander began keeping the enemy from the walls, the other (began) summoning the citizens.
Cum Caesar in Galliam vēnit, alterīus factiōnis prīncipēs erant Aeduī, alterīus Sēquanī. │ When Caesar came to Gaul, the leaders of one faction were the Aedui, (Of) the other were the Sequani.
[ii] 03.08.25: Level 3; pronominal adjectives [9](2); alius … alius
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/05/030825-level-3-pronominal-adjectives-92.html
Alius hodiē venit, alius crās veniet. │ One comes today, another will come tomorrow.
Aliī gladiōs, aliī scūta portant │ some carry swords, others shields.
[iv] 06.08.25: Level 3; pronominal adjectives [10] alius … alius; alter … alter; taking care when translating
Alius ¦ aliud fēcerat. │ One man had done one thing, the other had done another thing.
In illō proeliō frāter cum frātre pugnāvit; alter alterīus gladiō interfectī sunt. │ In that battle brother fought with brother; (the) one was killed by the sword of (the) one, the other (by the sword) of the other.
[3]
[i] bōs, bōvis [3 m/f]: ox (or: head of cattle; bull)
[ii] iuvencus, -ī [2/m]: bullock
[iii] iuvenca, -ae [1/f]: heifer
[iv] taurus, -ī [2/m]: bull
[v] vacca, -ae [1/f]: cow
(1) Catullus 64
Rūra colit nēmō, mollēscunt colla iuvencīs, | no one cultivates the countryside; the necks of the young bulls grow soft
nōn humilis curvīs purgātur vīnea rāstrīs, | the low vineyard is not cleared with curved hoes
nōn glēbam prōnō convellit vōmere taurus, | the bull does not break up the earth with a sloping ploughshare
(2) Aulularia (Plautus)
Venit hoc mihi, Megadōre, in mentem, tēd* esse hominem dīvitem, | It comes to my mind [= it strikes me], Megadorus, that you are a wealthy man,
factiōsum, mē autem esse hominem pauperum pauperrimum; | influential, but I am a poor man, a very poor one.
nunc sī fīliam locāssim* meam tibi, in mentem venit | Now if I were to give my daughter to you [in marriage], it strikes me
tē bovem esse et mē esse asellum: | that you’d be the ox and I the (little) donkey.
ubi tēcum coniūnctus siem,* | Once I’d been joined with you,
ubi onus nequeam ferre pariter, | when I couldn’t bear the load equally,
iaceam ego asinus in lutō, | I, the donkey, would be lying in the mud,
tū mē bōs magis haud respiciās, | you, the ox, would no more look back at me [ = not pay any more attention to me]
gnātus quasi numquam siem.*| than as if I had never been born.
* In the works of, for example, Plautus and Terence, there are occasional examples of older Latin word forms; these are archaisms:
tēd = tē
locāssim: archaic subjunctive form, the equivalent here of ‘if I were to do / have done something’
siem = sim
[4]
[i] camēlus, -ī [2/m]: camel
[ii] dromas, -adis [3/m]; dromedārius, -ī [2/m]: dromedary
[iii] elephantus, -ī [2/m]: elephant
Dromadēs camēlī inter dōna erant vēlōcitātis eximiae, XII elephantī ā Dārēō ex Indiā accītī (Quintus Curtius Rufus)
[5] iūmentum, -ī [2/n]; armentum, -ī [2/n]
Columella mentions both terms, and broadly distinguishes their function:
Unde etiam [i] iūmenta et [ii] armenta nōmina ā rē trāxēre quod nostrum labōrem vel [i] onera subvectandō vel [ii] arandō iuvārent.
[i] iūmentum, -ī [2/n]: animals used for transport, either pulling chariots and wagons or serving as pack animals for traveling e.g. horses and donkeys
[ii] armentum, -ī [2/n]: heavy-duty animals used in field work e.g. ploughing, mainly oxen and bulls but also horses
Original images of the animals, however, do not always convey such a precise ‘dictionary’ distinction, nor is the type of animal depicted always clear.
iūmenta et camēlōs et ā Sūsīs et ā Babylōne contrahī iussit (Quintus Curtius Rufus)
A hired man complains about the weight of the luggage he is carrying:
'quid vōs' inquit 'iūmentum mē putātis esse aut lapidāriam nāvem? hominis operās locāvī, nōn caballī’ (Petronius)
Image: the Wheel of Fortune from the Carmina Burana
Going from the left in a clockwise direction … three important tenses in one Mediaeval wheel of Doom
Left: regnābō │I shall reign
Top: regnō │ I reign
Right: regnāvī │ I (have) reigned
Bottom: sum sine regnō │ I am without a kingdom
[1]
Fortūne [ML = CL: Fortūnae] plangō vulnera │ I lament the wounds of Fortune
stillantibus ocellīs, │ with dripping [flowing / tearful] eyes
quod sua michi [ML = CL: mihi] munera / subtrahit rebellis. │ because she rebelliously withdraws her gifts from me
vērum est, quod legitur │ It is true what is read
fronte capillāta / sed plērumque sequitur / [i] Occāsiō calvāta. │ [i] Opportunity has hair at the front, but generally a bald patch follows
“Opportunity is described as having hair only on the front of her head - she can be seized as she approaches, but once she has passed, a person grabs futilely at the back of her head.” (Betts)
calvātus, -a, -um: bare; made bald
capillātus, -a, -um: having hair
plangō, -ere, plānxī, plānctus [3]: bewail; lament; mourn
sequor, sequī, secūtus sum [3/deponent]: follow
stīllō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]: drip; trickle
stillāns, stillantis: present active participle > ocellīs stillantibus │ with dripping eyes
subtrahō, -ere, -trāxī, -trāctus [3]: remove; withdraw
sua michi [dative] munera subtrahit │ She removes / takes away her gifts from me
[2] “In the second and third stanzas reference is made to the Wheel of Fortune, a common motif in the Middle Ages and often represented in art, where it was conceived as a primitive Ferris wheel accommodating four - one up, one down, one about to achieve prosperity, one about to be plunged into misery.” (Betts)
Note in this stanza the use of perfect passive participles and adjectives derived from them
ēlātus
coronātus
beātus
privātus
In Fortūn(a)e soliō │ On the throne of Fortune
sēderam ēlātus, │ I had sat [pluperfect tense] (having been) exalted (raised up; elevated) [perfect passive participle]
prōsperitātis ¦ variō / flōre [ablative] ¦ corōnātus; │ (having been) Crowned [perfect passive participle] ¦ with the many-coloured flower of prosperity
quicquid enim flōruī │ for however (in whatever way) I have flourished
fēlīx et beātus │ happy and blessed
nunc ā summō corruī │ Now I have fallen down from the top
glōriā prīvātus. │ (having been) deprived [perfect passive participle] of glory.
corruō, -ere, -uī, corrutus [3]: fall down
solium, -ī [2/m]: [i] seat; chair [ii] (here) throne
[i] sēderam ēlātus │ I had sat (having been) exalted (raised up)
The verb ferō (carry; bear), which will be discussed in greater depth in later posts, has unusual principal parts: ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus (why that happens will be explained)
lātus: having been carried
Those same principal parts will apply to compound forms of ferō:
ēlātus: having been lifted up
[ii] gloriā [ablative] prīvātus │ deprived of glory [literally: deprived from glory]
the ablative case can be used to express separation from something e.g. eōs timōre līberāvit │ he freed them from fear
[3]
Fortūn(a)e rota volvitur; │ the wheel of Fortune is turned
dēscendō minōrātus; │ I descend (having been) diminished
alter in altum tollitur; │ another is raised up on high
nimis exaltātus │ (having been) too exalted
rēx sedet in vertice │ the king sits at the top
caveat ruīnam! │ let him beware ruin!
nam sub axe legimus │ for below the axle we read
Hecubam rēgīnam. │ Queen Hecuba.
axis, -is [3/m]: axle (of a wheel)
minōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1] (late latin): reduce; diminish
vertex, verticis [3/m]: (here) highest point; summit; top
caveat ruīnam │ let him beware ruin; subjunctive, known in grammar as the jussive subjunctive that forms a command / suggestion usually referring to a third person rather than directly addressing somebody
Hecuba: “The name of Hecuba was a suitable inscription for the axle as she was the supreme example of Fortune's malice. From being Queen of Troy, after its sack she suffered such misery as a captive of the Greeks that the gods, out of pity, turned her into a dog.” (Betts)
In the Mediaeval world, they knew that power did not last forever; unfortunately, some of our 21st century leaders think it does.
[1]
Fortūne plangō vulnera │ I lament the wounds of Fortune
stillantibus ocellīs, │ with dripping (flowing / tearful) eyes
quod sua michi mūnera / subtrahit rebellis. │ because she rebelliously withdraws her gifts from me
vērum est, quod legitur │ It is true what is read
fronte capillāta, / sed plērumque sequitur / Occāsiō calvāta. │ Opportunity has hair at the front, but generally a bald patch follows
[2]
In Fortūne soliō │ On the throne of Fortune
sēderam ēlātus, │ I had sat exalted (raised up; elevated)
prōsperitātis variō / flōre corōnātus; │ Crowned with the many-coloured flower of prosperity
quicquid enim flōruī │ for however (in whatever way) I have flourished
fēlīx et beātus │ happy and blessed
nunc ā summō corruī │ now I have fallen down from the top
glōriā prīvātus. │ deprived of glory.
[3]
Fortūne rota volvitur; │ the wheel of Fortune is turned
dēscendō minōrātus; │ I descend diminished
alter in altum tollitur; │ another is raised up on high
nimis exaltātus │ too exalted
rēx sedet in vertice │ the king sits at the top
caveat ruīnam! │ let him beware ruin!
nam sub axe legimus │ for below the axle we read
Hecubam rēgīnam. │ Queen Hecuba.
Mediaeval pronunciation:
[i] fortūne = fortūnae; spelling change to reflect pronunication shift of Classical Latin /ae/ > /e/
[ii] vulnera [vool-ne-ra]; all letter v’s in the text are pronounced as in Engl. very; CL did not have a /v/ sound but developed later; CL letter V represented a /u/ or /w/ but since this text is Mediaeval, the singers reflect the pronunciation change by this period; that pronunciation is also in Ecclesiastical Latin although this song is secular
[iii] michi = mihi
[iv] ocellīs: c + e as /che/ rather than CL hard /c/ [k]; similarly: dēscendō; vertice
[v] legitur: g + i as soft /g/ as in English /j/ rather than CL hard /g/ [as in get]; similarly: legimus; rēginam
[xii] quō … eō … [or: eō … quō …]
[xiii] quantō … tantō … [or: tantō … quantō …]
Both used in combination with a comparative adjective or adverb:
the more (the … er) …. the more (the … er) e.g. the bigger the better
hominēs quō plūra habent eō cupiunt ampliōra
quō minus cupiditātis, eō plūs auctōritātis (Livy)
quae eō frūctuōsiōrēs fīunt, quō caldiōre terrā arātur (Varro)
quantō pulchrior tempestās erat, tantō fēlīciōrēs erāmus
quantō erat gravior oppūgnātiō, tantō crēbriōrēs litterae mittēbantur (Caesar)
atque quantō, nox, fuistī longior hāc proximā, tantō brevior diēs ut fīat faciam (Plautus)
quantō in pectore hanc rem meō magis volātō, tantō mī aegritūdō auctior est in animō (Plautus)
The more I keep this matter flying about in my heart [ = the more I think it over], the more my distress is increased [ = grows] in my mind.
[xiv] tālis … quālis … [or: quālis … tālis …] | of such a sort … as …
cum esset tālis quālem tē esse videō (Cicero)
Ac sī quis est tālis quālis esse omnis oportēbat … (Cicero)
et tālis est quaeque rēs pūblica, quālis eius aut nātūra aut voluntās, quī illam regit (Cicero)
A number of proverbs illustrate not only the use of this correlative but also the way in which English often does not translate them using a restricted dictionary definition as it literally occurs in Latin:
[1]
Quālis pater, tālis fīlius.
Like father, like son.
Nōn semper homō tālis est, quālis (esse) dīcitur. [Lit: He’s not always the sort of man as he’s said to be.]
[2]
Quālia dīxerīs, tālia audiēs. [Lit: Such things you might say, so you will hear.]
Tālia dicentur tibi, quālia dīxerīs ipse. [Lit: Such things will be said to you as you will say yourself.]
[3]
Quālis homō, tālis sermō. [Lit: As is the man, so is his speech.]
Quālia verba virī, tālis et ipse vir est. [Lit: As are the words of the man, so too is the man himself.]
Both convey the same idea:
Tālīs hominum ōrātiō, quālis vīta. [Lit: Such is the speech of men, so is their life.]
[4]
Quālīs vīs vidērī, tālis estō. [Lit: As you wish to be seen, be such]
Quālēs sumus, tālēs esse videāmur. [Lit: Let us be seen to be such as we are.]
NOTE: the topic can be used simply to make a list of vocabulary and the basic translations. However, to illustrate the vocabulary a large number of excerpts from original literature are used.
Here, and in the next posts, we look at animals as a means of transporting either goods or people, pulling some form of vehicle or farming equipment, as well as their use in war.
[1] One of the first words you would encounter when learning Latin is equus and it is by far the most common. There are, however, some other terms which should be noted even if they rarely occur.
[i] equus, -ī [2/m]: horse
Note: vehō, -ere, vēxī, vectus [3]: convey; commonly used when referring to how somebody was transported:
Alexander equō [ablative] vehebātur (Quintus Curtius Rufus)
literally: Alexander was conveyed by a horse, i.e. Alexander travelled by horse / rode on horseback
[ii] equa, -ae [1/f]: mare
[iii] caballus, -ī [2/m]: pack-horse; nag; workhorse
The term refers to an inferior horse; in CL caballus is found in poetic works, but its use is evident in prose from the Late Latin period, hence the derivatives cheval in French and caballo in Spanish.
Old English already had firmly established vocabulary for domestic animals: hors; mīere. However, the Latin words are evident in English derivatives e.g. equine and, via French, cavalier and chevalier < Late Latin: caballārius, -ī [2/m]: horseman; rider
[iv] canthērius, -ī [2/m]: a gelding i.e. a castrated horse; in a transferred sense, it can refer to an impotent old man
Three quotations from Plautus, none of which present the horse (or its human equivalent!) in a positive light:
(1) This first quotation from Plautus emphasises their low value:
ego faxim mūlī, pretiō quī superant equōs, sint vīliōrēs Gallicīs canthēriīs
(2) Likewise, the horses are associated with the negative portrayal of fish-sellers:
Tum piscātōrēs quī praebent populō piscēs foetidōs, quī advehuntur quadrupedantī cruciantī canthēriō, …
(3) He may be an old lecher, but he still thinks he’s in with a chance …
quamquam vetus canthērius sum, etiam nunc, ut ego opīnor, adhinnīre equolam* possum ego hanc, …
*Plautine spelling: equulus, -ī [2/m]: foal; equula, -ae [1/f]: a little mare / filly
[v] verēdus, -ī [2/m]: a fast or light breed of horse; courier’s horse; hunting-horse
From Martial:
l1: Pārcius ūtārīs, moneō, rapiente verēdō, | You should use more sparingly, I advise you, the rushing hunting-horse,
l2: Prīsce, nec in leporēs tām violentus eās. | and you should not, Priscus, go so furiously after the hares,
ll3-4: Saepe satisfēcit praedae vēnātor, et ācrī / Dēcidit excussus, nec reditūrus, equō. | The hunter has often made amends to the prey, and, shaken off, has fallen – never to return - from the fierce horse.
[2]
[i] asinus, -ī [2/m]: donkey; ass
[ii] asellus, -ī [2/m]: small donkey
[iii] asina, -ae [1/f]: female donkey; she-ass
[iv] mūlus, -ī [2/m]: mule
[v] pullus, -ī [2/m]: although the noun can refer to a chicken or any young fowl, its meaning encompasses any young animal e.g. a foal
(1) Īte in castellum, quod contrā vōs est, et statim introeuntēs illūc, inveniētis pullum ligātum, super quem nēmō adhūc hominum sēdit: solvite illum, et addūcite. (Vulgate)
(2) ecce rēx tuus veniet tibi iūstus et salvātor ipse pauper et ascendēns super asinum et super pullum fīlium asinae (Vulgate)
