Level 3+ (review); impersonal verbs [2] emotional states [i]

[i]

pudet: it shames

miseret: it moves to pity

paenitet: it causes regret

taedet: it wearies

piget: it disgusts; it annoys

[ii] The person who experiences these states becomes the object of the impersonal verb, but the impersonal construction in Latin will most often change to a personal construction in English:

pudet:  it shames

mē pudet │  literally: it shames me / it causes me shame

• I am ashamed

miseret: it moves to pity

mē miseret │ literally: it moves me to pity

• I feel pity / compassion

paenitet: it causes regret

taedet:  it wearies

taedet ipsum Pompēium vehementerque paenitet (Cicero)

• Pompey himself is weary of it and deeply regrets it.

piget, -ēre | it disgusts; it annoys

simul mē piget (Plautus)

• At the same time it irks me.

[iii]  With these impersonal verbs (1) the person affected is in the accusative case:

(2) the cause of that emotional state is in the genitive case:

(1) mē [accusative] (2) huius factī [genitive] paenitet

[literally: it causes me regret of this deed]

• I regret (2) this deed.

(1) mē [accusative] piget (2) ignāviae tuae [genitive]

• (1) I am disgusted (2) by your laziness.

(1) mē [accusative] cīvitātis mōrum [genitive] piget taedetque (Cicero)

• (1) I am sick and tired (2) of the ways of the state.

Crasse, (1) pudet mē [accusative] tuī [genitive] (Cicero)

• Crassus, (1) I am ashamed (2) of you.

(2) vestrī [genitive] (1) mē [accusative] pudet miseretque (Tacitus)

• (2) For you (1) I feel shame and compassion.

Level 3+ (review); impersonal verbs [1] introduction; weather expressions

In Latin, impersonal verbs do not have a personal subject i.e. they are not used with a nominative subject that performs the action. Instead, they typically express natural phenomena, mental states, necessity, obligation, emotion, or general events, and are normally used only in the third person singular.

In English, we often express impersonal ideas using the dummy subject “it”, as in:

It is raining.

It seems that…

It is necessary to…

Latin does not use a dummy subject, and so these ideas are expressed by impersonal verb forms alone, without a grammatical subject.

Example:

pluit: it is raining

There is no nominative subject; the verb stands by itself.

Latin impersonal verbs fall into several main semantic groups. Here we will look at:

[1] natural phenomena i.e. describing weather or natural events, for example:

grandinat: it is hailing

pluit: it is raining

ningit: it is snowing

tonat: it is thundering

Similarly:

French: il pleut; German: es regnet

Latin, however, does not use any pronoun.

[i] plumbō et saxīs grandinat. (Pacuvius)

• it’s hailing with lead and rocks

[ii] At quārē aliquandō nōn fulgurat et tonat (Seneca)

• But why is there no lightning sometimes and yet it thunders?

[iii] prius quam lūcet adsunt (Plautus)

• before it is daybreak they are with me

[iv] intereā tōtō nōn sētius aëre ningit (Virgil)

• Meanwhile it snows no less over the whole sky

[v] cum pluit in terrīs et ventī nūbila portant (Lucretius)

• when it rains on earth and winds bring clouds

[vi] cum tonat, … fulminat, cum serēnat (Minucius)

• when it thunders, … lightning strikes, when it’s clear

[vii] Ante rorat* quam pluit (Varro)

• it drizzles before it rains

*rorat can also refer to the formation of dew

Inchoative verbs may also function impersonally, for example:

• calēscit: it is getting hot; it’s starting to get hot
• frigēscit: it’s turning cold
• vesperāscit: it grows late

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/inchoative%20verbs

The entire topic of weather can be found at:

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/topic%3A%20weather

Topic; architecture [2]; Comenius (1658) LXVII; domus [2]

Part [2]

The hinges are upon the right hand, upon which the doors hang, the latch or the bolt are on the left hand.

Cardinēs sunt ā dextrīs, ā quibus pendent forēs; claustrum aut pessulus ā sinistrīs.

[i] cardō, -inis [3/n]: hinge; in Ancient Rome a hinge was usually constructed by a socket and pivot

[ii] claustrum, -ī [2/n]: (usually plural i.e. claustra, -ōrum) lock, bar, bolt; anything used to lock something

[iii] pessulus, -ī [2/m]: bolt

[iv] foris, -is [3/f]: door; entrance; pl: forēs, -ium, refers to the two leaves of a door

also: valvae, -ārum [1/f/pl]: double or folding door

Part [3]

Before the house is a forecourt, with a pavement of square stones, born up with pillars, in which is the chapiter*, and the base. 

Sub aedibus est cavædium, pavimentō tessellātō fulcītum columnīs, in quibus peristȳlium et basis.

[i] Note the distinction between:

(1) aedis, -is [3/f]: (singular) temple, shrine

(2) aedēs, -ium (plural): house

[ii] cavaedium, -ī [2/n]: main room of a Roman house; the far more common Latin term is atrium, -ī [2/n]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavaedium

The translator, and the image, show an open forecourt, but the ātrium of a Roman house was internal, the only opening being a form of skylight to allow rainwater to fall into a decorative and shallow pool below. The function of the ātrium will be discussed in the subsequent sections on the Roman house.

[iii] pavīmentum, -ī [2/n]: hard floor, a pavement; in the Ancient Roman period this could refer to (1) a floor made by beating small stones, earth, or lime into a flat surface, or (2) artificial flooring composed of coloured marbles such as pavīmentum sectile: marble cut into sets of regular forms and size.

[iv] tessellātus , -a, -um: made of small, square stones; checkered; tessellated

pavīmentum tessellātum: flooring of marble regularly cut without a mixture of forms; note that Hoole specifically translates this as ‘a pavement of square stones’.

in expedītiōnibus tessellāta et sectilia pavīmenta circumtulisse (Suetonius)

(It was said that) he carried about in his expeditions tesselated and cut mosaic slabs [for the floor of his tent].

*[v] Engl. chapiter (archit.) the uppermost part of a column; Comenius uses the noun:

peristȳlium, -ī [2/n]: the inner garden of a Roman house surrounded by columns i.e. a location rather than a specific architectural term

[vi] basis, -is [3/f]: base; foot; pedestal; lowest part of a column

[vii] columna, -ae [1/f]: column

Level 3+: Conditional clauses [12]: mixed conditionals; a word of advice from Utah

The term mixed conditionals simply refers to a feature shared by Latin and English: writers will vary the choice of tense and / or mood depending on what precisely they wish to convey. In other words, they do not adhere rigidly to the patterns of conditional clauses.

Compare:

If you had listened, you would have been safe.

If you had listened, you would be safe.

If I had been there, I would help you.

If I were there now, I could have helped you.

There are so many permutations that it would be unproductive and time-consuming to try to identify every possibility. In such instances, it is better to look at the verbs in the protasis and apodosis separately:

Sī haec verba dīxisset, laetus fuissem.

• If he had said these words, I would have been happy.

i.e. this is the past contrary-to-fact conditional according to the usual patterns

However, both Latin and English frequently mix time references, for example:

Sī haec verba dīxisset, laetus essem.

• If he had said these words, I would be happy (now).

Sī villam emisset, beātam vitam nunc ageret.

• If he had bought the country house, he would now be living a happy life.

i.e. If he had done something in the past, he would be doing something now.

Nisi tam clārus esset, nōn eam fābulam narrāvissem.

• If he were not so famous, I would not have told that story.

Hunc ego sī in praefectīs habuissem, quem tū mē hominem putārēs? (Cicero)

• If I had had this man among my prefects, what sort of person would you think I am?

Nunc, sī iam rēs placeat, agendī tamen viam nōn videō (Cicero)

• Now, even if the matter should please (me), I nevertheless do not see a way of carrying it out.

Pol etsī taceās, palam id quidem est (Plautus)

• By Pollux, even if you were to keep silent, that is indeed common knowledge.

Magister, nisi nimis vīnī bibisset, in scholā nōn errāret.

• If the teacher had not drunk too much wine, he would not be wandering in the school.

So that you avoid wandering around having drunk too many conditionals, a quotation from Utah State University makes a point – and an important one:

“And one more thing to note. In actual practice, conditions in both English and Latin are often “mixed,” which means the protasis will belong to one type of condition, and the apodosis another. In this course, however, you won’t see mixed conditions. Latin’s challenging enough when the conditions are balanced. Let’s leave it at that.”

When studying Latin – not only the topic of conditionals, but other topics too – the prime focus must be on becoming familiar with the ‘patterns’ rather than jumping ahead and examining the ways in which authors manipulate those patterns. Mixed conditionals are not uncommon and, where examples of them occur, they will be noted and explained.

The Latin Tutorial video which summarises the conditionals makes no reference to mixed conditionals. The summary image which is taken from the video gives the key patterns to remember.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96pIN5edS8c

Level 3+: Conditional clauses [11] etsī, etiamsī, tametsī

This topic is already discussed under the heading:

31.07.26: Level 3+; Subjunctive [78] dependent uses [8] concessive clauses (3) etsī, etiamsī, tametsī

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/03/310726-level-3-subjunctive-78-dependent.html

Etsī, etiamsī and tametsī introduce conditions. However, those conditions are concessive, translating as ‘although’ or ‘even if’.

Compare:

(i) [A] If the weather is nice, [B] we’ll go to the seaside.

For [B] to happen, [A] must happen = a conditional clause

(ii) [A] Even if it is raining, [B] we’ll go to the seaside.

This shows a condition which does not affect the outcome.

Indicative or subjunctive may be used with the three conjunctions.

Indicative: the speaker presents the concessive clause as a fact and asserts that it does not affect the action:

Etsī abest mātūritās, tamen nōn est inūtile (Cicero)

• Though / even if ripeness of age is wanting, yet it is not useless

Nam ista vēritās, etiamsī iūcunda nōn est, mihi tamen grāta est (Cicero)

• For that truth, although / even if it is not pleasant, is nevertheless pleasing to me.

Quam ob rem ego tē hoc, soror, tametsī es maior moneō (Plautus)

• For that reason, sister, I give you this advice although / even if you are older.

Subjunctive: used when the speaker introduces a hypothetical or imagined concession and asserts that it would not affect the outcome expressed in the main clause.

Mālō hunc adligārī ad horiam, ... etsī sit tempestās maxima (Plautus)

• I prefer this man to be tied to the small fishing boat ... even if there is a very big storm.

Etiamsī nōn adiuvēs, haec facere possim.

• Even if you were not to help, I would (nevertheless) be able to do this.

Etiamsī hominēs tacērent, rēs ipsa illum cēnsum repudiāret (Cicero)

• Even if people were silent, the very matter itself would repudiate that assessment.

i.e. it does not matter whether the people were silent or not, the outcome would be the same

Level 3 / 3+ (Review); Hillard & Botting [60] Labours of Hercules (1)

 [1] Complete the Latin text with the words given below:

(1) Among the ancient gods (2) no one is (3) more known today (4) than Hercules, the son of Jupiter, (5) about (6) whom (7) many and wonderful stories have been (8) handed down.

(1) __________ deōs antīquōs (2) __________  (3) __________  hodiē nōtus est (4) __________  Iovis fīlius Herculēs, (5) __________  (6) __________  fabulae (7) __________  et mīrae (8) __________  sunt.

trāditae; quō; quam; nēmō; multae; magis; inter; dē

[2] Vī corporis et hominibus et deōbus omnibus praestābat. Paucōs annōs mēnse nātus, dum in cūnīs iacet, in maximum perīculum vēnit: nam Iūnō, quae semper eī inimīcissima erat, duōs serpentēs contrā eum mīsit; suīs autem manibus duōs īnfāns faucēs eōrum ēlīsit.

How does the writer emphasise Hercules’ strength? (6)

[3] Posteā, quod Iūnō mentem eius aliēnāverat, suōs ipse līberōs occīdit. Magnō tum dolōre ultrō in exilium discessit; mox ad Apollinis ōrāculum vēnit ibique auxilium ā deō petīvit. Ab eō iussus est rēgī cuidam Eurystheō duodecim annōs parēre:

In which order are the following first referred to?

voluntary exile _____

seeking a god’s assistance _____

obeying a king _____

killing children _____

driven mad _____

a god’s command _____

[4] Translate:

“Tum dēnique,” inquit deus, “immortālis eris.” Ab hōc rēge Iūnōnis iussū coāctus est Herculēs duodecim labōrēs peragere. (6)

Vocabulary

cūnae, -ārum [1/f/pl]: cradle

ēlīdō, -ere, ēlīsī, ēlīsus [3]: crush

faucēs, -ium [3/f/pl]: throat

mēns, mentis [3/f]: mind

mentem aliēnō, -āre [1]: drive mad / insane

occīdō, occīdere, occīdī, occīsus [3]: kill

pareō, parēre, paruī, — [2]: obey

peragō, peragere, perēgī, perāctus [3]: carry out, complete

petō, petere, petīvī, petītus [3]: seek

ultrō: (here) voluntarily; of one’s own accord

____________________

[1]

Inter deōs antīquōs nēmō magis hodiē nōtus est quam Iovis fīlius Herculēs, dē quō fabulae multae et mīrae trāditae sunt.

[2]

superior in strength to all men and gods (1)

strength evident even when a baby / when he was still in his cradle (1)

threatened by two snakes (1) sent by Juno (1)

throttled them (1) with his hands / i.e. no weapons (1)

[3]

voluntary exile [3]

seeking a god’s assistance [4]

obeying a king [6]

killing children [2]

driven mad [1]

a god’s command [5]

[4]

“Then at last,” said the god (1), “you will be immortal (1).” By this king (1), at the command of Juno (1), Hercules was compelled (1) to carry out twelve labours (1).

____________________

Among the ancient gods no one is more known today than Hercules, the son of Jupiter, about whom many and wonderful stories have been handed down. In strength of body he excelled both men and all the gods. A few months old, when he was lying in his cradle, he came into the greatest danger: for Juno, who was always most hostile to him, sent two snakes against him; but the infant with his own hands crushed the throats of them. Afterwards, because Juno had driven his mind mad, he himself killed his own children. Then, in great grief, he went away into exile of his own accord; soon he came to the oracle of Apollo and there sought help from the god. By him he was ordered to serve a certain king, Eurystheus, for twelve years: “Then at last,” said the god, “you will be immortal.” By this king, at the command of Juno, Hercules was compelled to carry out twelve labours.

Topic; architecture [1]; Comenius (1658) LXVII; domus [1]

The basic Latin nouns that commonly describe the main parts of a house were first referred to here:

25.02.24: plan of a Roman house

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/blog-post_4.html

20.06.24: Level 1; vocabulary; parts of a Roman house [1]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/06/200624-level-1-vocabulary-parts-of.html

23.06.24: Level 1; vocabulary; parts of a Roman house [2]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/06/230624-level-1-vocabulary-parts-of.html

We will look at that vocabulary again. However, it is possible to explore the topic in far greater depth, discussing vocabulary that is more specific and / or technical, which can lead us to consider the ‘psychology’ of Roman architecture. Their grand building projects and statues conveyed messages of power, success and stability, a mindset that was not lost on the wealthy. Hidden behind modest doors in Pompeii were vast properties consciously designed to convey wealth, superiority, opulence and influence.

We will begin with Comenius, whose descriptions of the house are very detailed. Much of the vocabulary equates to Classical Latin although there are some differences.

Part [1] the House / Domus

The porch is before the door of the house.  |  Vestibulum est ante iānuam domūs.

The door hath a threshold, and a lintel, and posts, on both sides.  |  Iānua habet līmen, & superlīmināre, & postēs, utrinque.

[i] iānua, -ae [1/f]: door

[ii] līmen, līminis [3/n]: threshold

[iii] superlīmināre, -is [3/n]: lintel

[iv] postis, -is [3/m]: post; doorpost

trānsībit enim Dominus percutiēns Aegyptiōs cumque vīderit sanguinem in superlīminārī et in utrōque poste trānscendet ōstium et nōn sinet percussōrem ingredī domōs vestrās et laedere

(Vulgate)

For Yahweh will pass through to strike the Egyptians; and when he sees the blood on the lintel, and on the two side-posts, Yahweh will pass over the door and will not allow the destroyer to come into your houses to strike you.

ōstium, -ī [2/n]: door

[v] domus [f] (house) needs careful study because it has a mixture of second (indicated in green) and fourth (indicated in yellow) declension endings.