Level 3+ (review); correlatives [8] links

You have already seen a number of correlatives used in specific grammatical and syntactical constructions, notably [1] the subjunctive of purpose, and [2] under the heading of pronominal adjectives:

[1]

adeō … ut …

ita … ut …

sīc … ut …

tālis … ut …

tam … ut …

tantus … ut …

tot … ut …

2.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [40] dependent uses [2] result [i]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/02/220526-level-3-subjunctive-40-dependent.html

Tam fortis est ¦ ut hostēs vincat │ He is so brave ¦ that he conquers the enemy

Puerī tālia verba clāmant ¦ ut mātrēs audīre nōlint. │ The boys are shouting such words ¦ that the mothers refuse to listen.

Tot mīlitēs urbem oppugnant ¦ ut valdē timeāmus. │ So many soldiers are attacking the city ¦ that we are very afraid.

Tantus clāmor est ¦ ut cīvēs ōrātōrem nōn audiant. │ The noise is so great ¦ that the citizens do not hear the speaker.

Rōmam adeō amat ¦ ut semper hīc habitāre velit. │ He loves Rome to such an extent ¦ that he always wants [lit: would always want] to live here.

Mūrōs ita aedificant ¦ ut hostēs eōs dēlēre nōn possint. │ They build the walls in such a way ¦ that the enemies cannot destroy them.

Sīc pugnat vēnātor ¦ ut leō fugiat. │ The hunter fights in such a way ¦ that the lion flees.

[2]

alter … alter …

alius … alius …

[i] 31.07.25: Level 3; pronominal adjectives [8](2); alter … alter: the one … the other

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/05/310725-level-3-pronominal-adjectives-82.html

Alter lēgātus hostēs moenibus prohibēre, alter incolās convocāre coepit │ One commander began keeping the enemy from the walls, the other (began) summoning the citizens.

Cum Caesar in Galliam vēnit, alterīus factiōnis prīncipēs erant Aeduī, alterīus Sēquanī. │ When Caesar came to Gaul, the leaders of one faction were the Aedui, (Of) the other were the Sequani.

[ii] 03.08.25: Level 3; pronominal adjectives [9](2); alius … alius

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/05/030825-level-3-pronominal-adjectives-92.html

Alius hodiē venit, alius crās veniet. │ One comes today, another will come tomorrow.

Aliī gladiōs, aliī scūta portant │ some carry swords, others shields.

[iv] 06.08.25: Level 3; pronominal adjectives [10] alius … alius; alter … alter; taking care when translating

Alius ¦ aliud fēcerat. │ One man had done one thing, the other had done another thing.

In illō proeliō frāter cum frātre pugnāvit; alter alterīus gladiō interfectī sunt. │ In that battle brother fought with brother; (the) one was killed by the sword of (the) one, the other (by the sword) of the other.

Topic / Level 4; animals at work (2)

[3]

[i] bōs, bōvis [3 m/f]: ox (or: head of cattle; bull)

[ii] iuvencus, -ī [2/m]: bullock

[iii] iuvenca, -ae [1/f]: heifer

[iv] taurus, -ī [2/m]: bull

[v] vacca, -ae [1/f]: cow

(1) Catullus 64

Rūra colit nēmō, mollēscunt colla iuvencīs, | no one cultivates the countryside; the necks of the young bulls grow soft

nōn humilis curvīs purgātur vīnea rāstrīs, | the low vineyard is not cleared with curved hoes

nōn glēbam prōnō convellit vōmere taurus, | the bull does not break up the earth with a sloping ploughshare

(2) Aulularia (Plautus)

Venit hoc mihi, Megadōre, in mentem, tēd* esse hominem dīvitem, | It comes to my mind [= it strikes me], Megadorus, that you are a wealthy man,

factiōsum, mē autem esse hominem pauperum pauperrimum; | influential, but I am a poor man, a very poor one.

nunc sī fīliam locāssim* meam tibi, in mentem venit | Now if I were to give my daughter to you [in marriage], it strikes me

tē bovem esse et mē esse asellum: | that you’d be the ox and I the (little) donkey.

ubi tēcum coniūnctus siem,* | Once I’d been joined with you,

ubi onus nequeam ferre pariter, | when I couldn’t bear the load equally,

iaceam ego asinus in lutō, | I, the donkey, would be lying in the mud,

tū mē bōs magis haud respiciās, | you, the ox, would no more look back at me [ = not pay any more attention to me]

gnātus quasi numquam siem.*| than as if I had never been born.

* In the works of, for example, Plautus and Terence, there are occasional examples of older Latin word forms; these are archaisms:

tēd = tē

locāssim: archaic subjunctive form, the equivalent here of ‘if I were to do / have done something’

siem = sim

[4]

[i] camēlus, -ī [2/m]: camel

[ii] dromas, -adis [3/m]; dromedārius, -ī [2/m]: dromedary

[iii] elephantus, -ī [2/m]: elephant

Dromadēs camēlī inter dōna erant vēlōcitātis eximiae, XII elephantī ā Dārēō ex Indiā accītī (Quintus Curtius Rufus)

• Among the presents were dromedaries of extraordinary swiftness, twelve elephants imported by Darius from India

[5] iūmentum, -ī [2/n]; armentum, -ī [2/n]

Columella mentions both terms, and broadly distinguishes their function:

Unde etiam [i] iūmenta et [ii] armenta nōmina ā rē trāxēre quod nostrum labōrem vel [i] onera subvectandō vel [ii] arandō iuvārent.

• And so it is that iumenta and armenta have drawn their names from the fact that they aid our work either by bringing up burdens or by ploughing.

[i] iūmentum, -ī [2/n]: animals used for transport, either pulling chariots and wagons or serving as pack animals for traveling e.g. horses and donkeys

[ii] armentum, -ī [2/n]: heavy-duty animals used in field work e.g. ploughing, mainly oxen and bulls but also horses

Original images of the animals, however, do not always convey such a precise ‘dictionary’ distinction, nor is the type of animal depicted always clear.

iūmenta et camēlōs et ā Sūsīs et ā Babylōne contrahī iussit (Quintus Curtius Rufus)

• he ordered camels and other beasts of burden to be brought together from Susa and Babylon.

A hired man complains about the weight of the luggage he is carrying:

'quid vōs' inquit 'iūmentum mē putātis esse aut lapidāriam nāvem? hominis operās locāvī, nōn caballī’ (Petronius)

• "What do you think I am," he said, " a beast of burden or a ship for carrying stones? I contracted for the work of a man, not a dray-horse!

Level 4; literature; Mediaeval; Carmina Burana: Fortune plango vulnera [3]: the Wheel of Fortune

Image: the Wheel of Fortune from the Carmina Burana

Going from the left in a clockwise direction … three important tenses in one Mediaeval wheel of Doom

Left: regnābō │I shall reign

Top: regnō │ I reign

Right: regnāvī │ I (have) reigned

Bottom: sum sine regnō │ I am without a kingdom

Level 4; literature; Mediaeval; Carmina Burana: Fortune plango vulnera [2]: notes and vocabulary

[1]

Fortūne [ML = CL: Fortūnae] plangō vulnera │ I lament the wounds of Fortune

stillantibus ocellīs, │ with dripping [flowing / tearful] eyes

quod sua michi [ML = CL: mihi] munera / subtrahit rebellis. │ because she rebelliously withdraws her gifts from me

vērum est, quod legitur  │ It is true what is read

fronte capillāta / sed plērumque sequitur / [i] Occāsiō calvāta. │ [i] Opportunity has hair at the front, but generally a bald patch follows

“Opportunity is described as having hair only on the front of her head - she can be seized as she approaches, but once she has passed, a person grabs futilely at the back of her head.” (Betts)

calvātus, -a, -um: bare; made bald

capillātus, -a, -um: having hair

plangō, -ere, plānxī, plānctus [3]: bewail; lament; mourn

sequor, sequī, secūtus sum [3/deponent]: follow

stīllō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]: drip; trickle

stillāns, stillantis: present active participle > ocellīs stillantibus │ with dripping eyes

subtrahō, -ere, -trāxī, -trāctus [3]: remove; withdraw

sua michi [dative] munera subtrahit │ She removes / takes away her gifts from me

[2] “In the second and third stanzas reference is made to the Wheel of Fortune, a common motif in the Middle Ages and often represented in art, where it was conceived as a primitive Ferris wheel accommodating four - one up, one down, one about to achieve prosperity, one about to be plunged into misery.” (Betts) 

Note in this stanza the use of perfect passive participles and adjectives derived from them

ēlātus

coronātus

beātus

privātus

In Fortūn(a)e soliō │ On the throne of Fortune

sēderam ēlātus, │ I had sat [pluperfect tense] (having been) exalted (raised up;  elevated) [perfect passive participle]

prōsperitātis ¦ variō / flōre [ablative] ¦ corōnātus; │ (having been) Crowned [perfect passive participle] ¦ with the many-coloured flower of prosperity

quicquid enim flōruī │ for however (in whatever way) I have flourished

fēlīx et beātus │ happy and blessed

nunc ā summō corruī │ Now I have fallen down from the top

glōriā prīvātus. │ (having been) deprived [perfect passive participle] of glory.

corruō, -ere, -uī, corrutus [3]: fall down

solium, -ī [2/m]: [i] seat; chair [ii] (here) throne

[i] sēderam ēlātus │ I had sat (having been) exalted (raised up)

The verb ferō (carry; bear), which will be discussed in greater depth in later posts, has unusual principal parts: ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus (why that happens will be explained)

lātus: having been carried

Those same principal parts will apply to compound forms of ferō:

ēlātus: having been lifted up

[ii] gloriā [ablative] prīvātus │ deprived of glory [literally: deprived from glory]

the ablative case can be used to express separation from something e.g. eōs timōre līberāvit │ he freed them from fear

[3]

Fortūn(a)e rota volvitur; │ the wheel of Fortune is turned

dēscendō minōrātus; │ I descend (having been) diminished

alter in altum tollitur; │ another is raised up on high

nimis exaltātus │ (having been) too exalted

rēx sedet in vertice │ the king sits at the top

caveat ruīnam! │ let him beware ruin!

nam sub axe legimus │ for below the axle we read

Hecubam rēgīnam. │ Queen Hecuba.

axis, -is [3/m]: axle (of a wheel)

minōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1] (late latin): reduce; diminish

vertex, verticis [3/m]: (here) highest point; summit; top

caveat ruīnam │ let him beware ruin; subjunctive, known in grammar as the jussive subjunctive that forms a command / suggestion usually referring to a third person rather than directly addressing somebody

Hecuba: “The name of Hecuba was a suitable inscription for the axle as she was the supreme example of Fortune's malice. From being Queen of Troy, after its sack she suffered such misery as a captive of the Greeks that the gods, out of pity, turned her into a dog.” (Betts)

Level 4; literature; Mediaeval; Carmina Burana: Fortune plango vulnera [1]: text / translation / pronunciation notes

In the Mediaeval world, they knew that power did not last forever; unfortunately, some of our 21^st century leaders think it does.

[1]

Fortūne plangō vulnera │ I lament the wounds of Fortune

stillantibus ocellīs, │ with dripping (flowing / tearful) eyes

quod sua michi mūnera / subtrahit rebellis. │ because she rebelliously withdraws her gifts from me

vērum est, quod legitur │ It is true what is read

fronte capillāta, / sed plērumque sequitur / Occāsiō calvāta. │ Opportunity has hair at the front, but generally a bald patch follows

[2]

In Fortūne soliō │ On the throne of Fortune

sēderam ēlātus, │ I had sat exalted (raised up;  elevated)

prōsperitātis variō / flōre corōnātus; │ Crowned with the many-coloured flower of prosperity

quicquid enim flōruī │ for however (in whatever way) I have flourished

fēlīx et beātus │ happy and blessed

nunc ā summō corruī │ now I have fallen down from the top

glōriā prīvātus. │ deprived of glory.

[3]

Fortūne rota volvitur; │ the wheel of Fortune is turned

dēscendō minōrātus; │ I descend diminished

alter in altum tollitur; │ another is raised up on high

nimis exaltātus │ too exalted

rēx sedet in vertice │ the king sits at the top

caveat ruīnam! │ let him beware ruin!

nam sub axe legimus │ for below the axle we read

Hecubam rēgīnam. │ Queen Hecuba.

Mediaeval pronunciation:

[i] fortūne = fortūnae; spelling change to reflect pronunication shift of Classical Latin /ae/ > /e/  

[ii] vulnera [vool-ne-ra]; all letter v’s in the text are pronounced as in Engl. very; CL did not have a /v/ sound but developed later; CL letter V represented a /u/ or /w/ but since this text is Mediaeval, the singers reflect the pronunciation change by this period; that pronunciation is also in Ecclesiastical Latin although this song is secular

[iii] michi = mihi

[iv] ocellīs: c + e as /che/ rather than CL hard /c/ [k]; similarly: dēscendō; vertice

[v] legitur: g + i as soft /g/ as in English /j/ rather than CL hard /g/ [as in get]; similarly: legimus; rēginam 

Level 3+ (review); correlatives [7] making comparisons (4) quō … eō; quantō … tantō; quālis … tālis …

[xii] quō … eō … [or: eō … quō …]

[xiii] quantō … tantō … [or: tantō … quantō …]

Both used in combination with a comparative adjective or adverb:

the more (the … er) ….  the more (the … er) e.g. the bigger the better

hominēs quō plūra habent eō cupiunt ampliōra

• The more men have, the more they desire.

quō minus cupiditātis, eō plūs auctōritātis (Livy)

• the less greed, the more weight

quae eō frūctuōsiōrēs fīunt, quō caldiōre terrā arātur (Varro)

• and they become more fruitful the warmer the ground in which ploughing takes place

quantō pulchrior tempestās erat, tantō fēlīciōrēs erāmus

• The nicer the weather was, the happier we were.

quantō erat gravior oppūgnātiō, tantō crēbriōrēs litterae mittēbantur (Caesar)

• The more severe the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent.

atque quantō, nox, fuistī longior hāc proximā, tantō brevior diēs ut fīat faciam (Plautus)

• and, Night, the longer you were than the last one, I’ll make the day so much the shorter.

quantō in pectore hanc rem meō magis volātō, tantō mī aegritūdō auctior est in animō (Plautus)

The more I keep this matter flying about in my heart [ = the more I think it over], the more my distress is increased [ = grows] in my mind.

[xiv] tālis … quālis … [or: quālis … tālis …] | of such a sort … as …

cum esset tālis quālem tē esse videō (Cicero)

• since he was such a man as I see you are

Ac sī quis est tālis quālis esse omnis oportēbat … (Cicero)

• And if there is anyone such as everybody ought to be … 

et tālis est quaeque rēs pūblica, quālis eius aut nātūra aut voluntās, quī illam regit (Cicero)

• And each state is of such a kind as either the nature or the will of the person who rules it.

A number of proverbs illustrate not only the use of this correlative but also the way in which English often does not translate them using a restricted dictionary definition as it literally occurs in Latin:

[1]

Quālis pater, tālis fīlius.

Like father, like son.

Nōn semper homō tālis est, quālis (esse) dīcitur. [Lit: He’s not always the sort of man as he’s said to be.]

• A man is not always as he is said to be.

[2]

Quālia dīxerīs, tālia audiēs. [Lit: Such things you might say, so you will hear.]

• Whatever you say, you will hear the same, i.e. If you speak good (or bad) things about other people, you will hear the same about yourself.

Tālia dicentur tibi, quālia dīxerīs ipse. [Lit: Such things will be said to you as you will say yourself.]

• Whatever you say will be said to you.

[3]

Quālis homō, tālis sermō. [Lit: As is the man, so is his speech.]

Quālia verba virī, tālis et ipse vir est. [Lit: As are the words of the man, so too is the man himself.]

Both convey the same idea:

• A man is what he says / a man is determined by his words.

Tālīs hominum ōrātiō, quālis vīta. [Lit: Such is the speech of men, so is their life.]

• Men’s words show the life they lead.

[4]

Quālīs vīs vidērī, tālis estō. [Lit: As you wish to be seen, be such]

• Be the way you want to appear.

Quālēs sumus, tālēs esse videāmur. [Lit: Let us be seen to be such as we are.]

• Let’s not pretend to be something that we’re not.

Topic / Level 4; animals at work (1)

NOTE: the topic can be used simply to make a list of vocabulary and the basic translations. However, to illustrate the vocabulary a large number of excerpts from original literature are used.

Here, and in the next posts, we look at animals as a means of transporting either goods or people, pulling some form of vehicle or farming equipment, as well as their use in war.

[1] One of the first words you would encounter when learning Latin is equus and it is by far the most common. There are, however, some other terms which should be noted even if they rarely occur.

[i] equus, -ī [2/m]: horse

Note: vehō, -ere, vēxī, vectus [3]: convey; commonly used when referring to how somebody was transported:

Alexander equō [ablative] vehebātur  (Quintus Curtius Rufus)

literally: Alexander was conveyed by a horse, i.e. Alexander travelled by horse / rode on horseback

[ii] equa, -ae [1/f]: mare

[iii] caballus, -ī [2/m]: pack-horse; nag; workhorse

The term refers to an inferior horse; in CL caballus is found in poetic works, but its use is evident in prose from the Late Latin period, hence the derivatives cheval in French and caballo in Spanish.

Old English already had firmly established vocabulary for domestic animals: hors; mīere. However, the Latin words are evident in English derivatives e.g. equine and, via French, cavalier and chevalier < Late Latin: caballārius, -ī [2/m]: horseman; rider

[iv] canthērius, -ī [2/m]: a gelding i.e. a castrated horse;  in a transferred sense, it can refer to an impotent old man

Three quotations from Plautus, none of which present the horse (or its human equivalent!) in a positive light:

(1) This first quotation from Plautus emphasises their low value:

ego faxim mūlī, pretiō quī superant equōs, sint vīliōrēs Gallicīs canthēriīs

• I’d see to it that the mules that cost more than horses, would be cheaper than Gallic geldings.

(2) Likewise, the horses are associated with the negative portrayal of fish-sellers:

Tum piscātōrēs quī praebent populō piscēs foetidōs, quī advehuntur quadrupedantī cruciantī canthēriō,  …

• Then the fishermen that offer the people stinking fish, that are carried around on a trotting, jolting [lit: torturing] gelding, …

(3) He may be an old lecher, but he still thinks he’s in with a chance …

quamquam vetus canthērius sum, etiam nunc, ut ego opīnor, adhinnīre equolam* possum ego hanc, …

• Although I’m an old gelding, even now, I think, I can still whinny at this little mare / little filly, …

*Plautine spelling: equulus, -ī [2/m]: foal; equula, -ae [1/f]: a little mare / filly

[v] verēdus, -ī [2/m]: a fast or light breed of horse; courier’s horse; hunting-horse

From Martial:

l1: Pārcius ūtārīs, moneō, rapiente verēdō, | You should use more sparingly, I advise you, the rushing hunting-horse,

l2: Prīsce, nec in leporēs tām violentus eās. | and you should not, Priscus, go so furiously after the hares,

ll3-4: Saepe satisfēcit praedae vēnātor, et ācrī / Dēcidit excussus, nec reditūrus, equō. | The hunter has often made amends to the prey, and, shaken off, has fallen – never to return - from the fierce horse.

[2]

[i] asinus, -ī [2/m]: donkey; ass

[ii] asellus, -ī [2/m]: small donkey

[iii] asina, -ae [1/f]: female donkey; she-ass

[iv] mūlus, -ī [2/m]: mule

[v] pullus, -ī [2/m]: although the noun can refer to a chicken or any young fowl, its meaning encompasses any young animal e.g. a foal

(1) Īte in castellum, quod contrā vōs est, et statim introeuntēs illūc, inveniētis pullum ligātum, super quem nēmō adhūc hominum sēdit: solvite illum, et addūcite. (Vulgate)

• “Go to the village ahead of you, and just as you enter it, you will find a colt tied there, which no one has ever ridden. Untie it and bring it here.” 

(2) ecce rēx tuus veniet tibi iūstus et salvātor ipse pauper et ascendēns super asinum et super pullum fīlium asinae (Vulgate)

• Behold, your king comes to you! He is righteous, and having salvation; Lowly, and riding on a donkey, Even on a colt, the foal of a donkey.