Topic / Level 4; animals at work (3); Varro’s nine part matrix

[6] Two nouns that are very similar to one another:

[i] pecus, pecoris [3/n]: collective noun referring to large domestic animals e.g. livestock; a herd of cattle etc.

The meaning may be extended to refer to any group of animals, including a flock of birds:

volātile pecus (Columella) | ‘winged / flying livestock’, i.e. flock of birds

[ii] pecus, pecudis [3/f]: a single head of cattle

Varro (Dē Rē Rūsticā) divides animal husbandry into a nine part matrix under three headings, each category comprising three specific types:

[1] smaller livestock: sheep, goats, pigs

[2] larger livestock: cattle / oxen; donkeys; horses

[3] animals – and people – not kept for direct profit but rather on account of the livestock e.g. dogs / shepherds to protect them) or derived from the livestock e.g. mules

est scientia pecoris parandī ac pāscendī | there is a knowledge of tending and feeding livestock 

ut frūctūs quam possint maximī capiantur ex eō  | ... so that the greatest profits are obtained from it..

Ea partēs habet novem, | It has nine divisions,

discrētās ter ternās, | separated into three groups of three,

ut sit ūna dē minōribus pecudibus | so that one is concerned with smaller livestock,

cuius genera tria ovēs, capra, sūs, | whose three kinds are the sheep, goat, and pig, 

altera dē pecore maiōre, | the other with larger livestock

in quō sunt item ad trēs speciēs nātūrā discrētī: | in which there are likewise three species divided by their nature:

bovēs, asinī, equī. | cattle, donkeys, and horses.

Tertia pars est in pecuāriā quae nōn parantur | The third part consists of those animals in cattle-raising which are not kept

ut ex iīs capiātur frūctus, |  so that profit may be obtained from them,

sed propter eam aut ex eā. | but [are kept] on account of it or as a result of it.

Sunt mūlī, canēs, pāstōrēs. | They are mules, dogs, and shepherds.

• caper, caprī [2/m]: goat
• capra, -ae [1/f]: she-goat
• canis, -is [3 m/f]: dog
• sūs, suis [3 m/f]: pig, swine
• ovis, -is [3/f]: sheep
• genus, generis [3/n]: kind, race, type
• species, -ēī [5/f]: appearance, form, kind, species

Level 4; literature; the poetry of Rome: introduction – you’ve just gotta love Lesbia

To give you an idea of the direction in which this set of posts is going, the ability to scan a Latin poem and to analyse its effects are requirements of the UK A Level (post-16) Latin examination.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3z_QAPB3XeA

Vīvāmūs mĕă Lēsbĭ[a] ͜    ātqu[e] ͜    ămēmŭs

rūmōrēsquĕ sĕnūm sĕvērĭōrŭm

ōmnēs ūnĭŭs aēstĭmēmŭs āssĭs

dā mī bāsĭă mīllĕ deīndĕ cēntŭm

deīn mīll[e] ͜    āltĕră deīn sĕcūndă cēntŭm

Deīnd[e] ͜    ūsqu[e] ͜    āltĕră mīllĕ deīndĕ cēntŭm

deīn cūm mīlĭă mūltă fēcĕrīmŭs

cōntūrbābĭmŭs īllă nē scĭāmŭs

aūt nē quīs mălŭs īnvĭdērĕ pōssĭt

cūm tāntūm scĭăt ēssĕ bāsĭōrŭm

(Catullus V)

Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love,

and let us judge all the rumors of the old men

to be worth just one penny!

Give me a thousand kisses, then another hundred,

then another thousand, then a second hundred,

then yet another thousand more, then another hundred.

Then, when we have made many thousands,

we will mix them all up so that we don't know,

and so that no one can be jealous of us when he finds out

how many kisses we have shared.

The composer, Farya Faraji, makes the following comment: “In my opinion, the best place to start for reconstructing their music is the poetry: Ancient Roman poetry used the interplay of long vs short vowel lengths and stress accent to create rythmic effects to the poetry, not unlike modern rap does.”

And that’s where we’re going to start – not with Catullus, but with a verse from the 4^th century. We’ll meet Catullus – and his fairweather friends – later. The following posts will look at the 4^th century Pater Noster of Juvencus (recited by Vincent). 

Level 3+ (review); correlatives [8] links

You have already seen a number of correlatives used in specific grammatical and syntactical constructions, notably [1] the subjunctive of purpose, and [2] under the heading of pronominal adjectives:

[1]

adeō … ut …

ita … ut …

sīc … ut …

tālis … ut …

tam … ut …

tantus … ut …

tot … ut …

2.05.26; Level 3+; Subjunctive [40] dependent uses [2] result [i]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2026/02/220526-level-3-subjunctive-40-dependent.html

Tam fortis est ¦ ut hostēs vincat │ He is so brave ¦ that he conquers the enemy

Puerī tālia verba clāmant ¦ ut mātrēs audīre nōlint. │ The boys are shouting such words ¦ that the mothers refuse to listen.

Tot mīlitēs urbem oppugnant ¦ ut valdē timeāmus. │ So many soldiers are attacking the city ¦ that we are very afraid.

Tantus clāmor est ¦ ut cīvēs ōrātōrem nōn audiant. │ The noise is so great ¦ that the citizens do not hear the speaker.

Rōmam adeō amat ¦ ut semper hīc habitāre velit. │ He loves Rome to such an extent ¦ that he always wants [lit: would always want] to live here.

Mūrōs ita aedificant ¦ ut hostēs eōs dēlēre nōn possint. │ They build the walls in such a way ¦ that the enemies cannot destroy them.

Sīc pugnat vēnātor ¦ ut leō fugiat. │ The hunter fights in such a way ¦ that the lion flees.

[2]

alter … alter …

alius … alius …

[i] 31.07.25: Level 3; pronominal adjectives [8](2); alter … alter: the one … the other

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/05/310725-level-3-pronominal-adjectives-82.html

Alter lēgātus hostēs moenibus prohibēre, alter incolās convocāre coepit │ One commander began keeping the enemy from the walls, the other (began) summoning the citizens.

Cum Caesar in Galliam vēnit, alterīus factiōnis prīncipēs erant Aeduī, alterīus Sēquanī. │ When Caesar came to Gaul, the leaders of one faction were the Aedui, (Of) the other were the Sequani.

[ii] 03.08.25: Level 3; pronominal adjectives [9](2); alius … alius

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/05/030825-level-3-pronominal-adjectives-92.html

Alius hodiē venit, alius crās veniet. │ One comes today, another will come tomorrow.

Aliī gladiōs, aliī scūta portant │ some carry swords, others shields.

[iv] 06.08.25: Level 3; pronominal adjectives [10] alius … alius; alter … alter; taking care when translating

Alius ¦ aliud fēcerat. │ One man had done one thing, the other had done another thing.

In illō proeliō frāter cum frātre pugnāvit; alter alterīus gladiō interfectī sunt. │ In that battle brother fought with brother; (the) one was killed by the sword of (the) one, the other (by the sword) of the other.

Topic / Level 4; animals at work (2)

[3]

[i] bōs, bōvis [3 m/f]: ox (or: head of cattle; bull)

[ii] iuvencus, -ī [2/m]: bullock

[iii] iuvenca, -ae [1/f]: heifer

[iv] taurus, -ī [2/m]: bull

[v] vacca, -ae [1/f]: cow

(1) Catullus 64

Rūra colit nēmō, mollēscunt colla iuvencīs, | no one cultivates the countryside; the necks of the young bulls grow soft

nōn humilis curvīs purgātur vīnea rāstrīs, | the low vineyard is not cleared with curved hoes

nōn glēbam prōnō convellit vōmere taurus, | the bull does not break up the earth with a sloping ploughshare

(2) Aulularia (Plautus)

Venit hoc mihi, Megadōre, in mentem, tēd* esse hominem dīvitem, | It comes to my mind [= it strikes me], Megadorus, that you are a wealthy man,

factiōsum, mē autem esse hominem pauperum pauperrimum; | influential, but I am a poor man, a very poor one.

nunc sī fīliam locāssim* meam tibi, in mentem venit | Now if I were to give my daughter to you [in marriage], it strikes me

tē bovem esse et mē esse asellum: | that you’d be the ox and I the (little) donkey.

ubi tēcum coniūnctus siem,* | Once I’d been joined with you,

ubi onus nequeam ferre pariter, | when I couldn’t bear the load equally,

iaceam ego asinus in lutō, | I, the donkey, would be lying in the mud,

tū mē bōs magis haud respiciās, | you, the ox, would no more look back at me [ = not pay any more attention to me]

gnātus quasi numquam siem.*| than as if I had never been born.

* In the works of, for example, Plautus and Terence, there are occasional examples of older Latin word forms; these are archaisms:

tēd = tē

locāssim: archaic subjunctive form, the equivalent here of ‘if I were to do / have done something’

siem = sim

[4]

[i] camēlus, -ī [2/m]: camel

[ii] dromas, -adis [3/m]; dromedārius, -ī [2/m]: dromedary

[iii] elephantus, -ī [2/m]: elephant

Dromadēs camēlī inter dōna erant vēlōcitātis eximiae, XII elephantī ā Dārēō ex Indiā accītī (Quintus Curtius Rufus)

• Among the presents were dromedaries of extraordinary swiftness, twelve elephants imported by Darius from India

[5] iūmentum, -ī [2/n]; armentum, -ī [2/n]

Columella mentions both terms, and broadly distinguishes their function:

Unde etiam [i] iūmenta et [ii] armenta nōmina ā rē trāxēre quod nostrum labōrem vel [i] onera subvectandō vel [ii] arandō iuvārent.

• And so it is that iumenta and armenta have drawn their names from the fact that they aid our work either by bringing up burdens or by ploughing.

[i] iūmentum, -ī [2/n]: animals used for transport, either pulling chariots and wagons or serving as pack animals for traveling e.g. horses and donkeys

[ii] armentum, -ī [2/n]: heavy-duty animals used in field work e.g. ploughing, mainly oxen and bulls but also horses

Original images of the animals, however, do not always convey such a precise ‘dictionary’ distinction, nor is the type of animal depicted always clear.

iūmenta et camēlōs et ā Sūsīs et ā Babylōne contrahī iussit (Quintus Curtius Rufus)

• he ordered camels and other beasts of burden to be brought together from Susa and Babylon.

A hired man complains about the weight of the luggage he is carrying:

'quid vōs' inquit 'iūmentum mē putātis esse aut lapidāriam nāvem? hominis operās locāvī, nōn caballī’ (Petronius)

• "What do you think I am," he said, " a beast of burden or a ship for carrying stones? I contracted for the work of a man, not a dray-horse!

Level 4; literature; Mediaeval; Carmina Burana: Fortune plango vulnera [3]: the Wheel of Fortune

Image: the Wheel of Fortune from the Carmina Burana

Going from the left in a clockwise direction … three important tenses in one Mediaeval wheel of Doom

Left: regnābō │I shall reign

Top: regnō │ I reign

Right: regnāvī │ I (have) reigned

Bottom: sum sine regnō │ I am without a kingdom

Level 4; literature; Mediaeval; Carmina Burana: Fortune plango vulnera [2]: notes and vocabulary

[1]

Fortūne [ML = CL: Fortūnae] plangō vulnera │ I lament the wounds of Fortune

stillantibus ocellīs, │ with dripping [flowing / tearful] eyes

quod sua michi [ML = CL: mihi] munera / subtrahit rebellis. │ because she rebelliously withdraws her gifts from me

vērum est, quod legitur  │ It is true what is read

fronte capillāta / sed plērumque sequitur / [i] Occāsiō calvāta. │ [i] Opportunity has hair at the front, but generally a bald patch follows

“Opportunity is described as having hair only on the front of her head - she can be seized as she approaches, but once she has passed, a person grabs futilely at the back of her head.” (Betts)

calvātus, -a, -um: bare; made bald

capillātus, -a, -um: having hair

plangō, -ere, plānxī, plānctus [3]: bewail; lament; mourn

sequor, sequī, secūtus sum [3/deponent]: follow

stīllō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]: drip; trickle

stillāns, stillantis: present active participle > ocellīs stillantibus │ with dripping eyes

subtrahō, -ere, -trāxī, -trāctus [3]: remove; withdraw

sua michi [dative] munera subtrahit │ She removes / takes away her gifts from me

[2] “In the second and third stanzas reference is made to the Wheel of Fortune, a common motif in the Middle Ages and often represented in art, where it was conceived as a primitive Ferris wheel accommodating four - one up, one down, one about to achieve prosperity, one about to be plunged into misery.” (Betts) 

Note in this stanza the use of perfect passive participles and adjectives derived from them

ēlātus

coronātus

beātus

privātus

In Fortūn(a)e soliō │ On the throne of Fortune

sēderam ēlātus, │ I had sat [pluperfect tense] (having been) exalted (raised up;  elevated) [perfect passive participle]

prōsperitātis ¦ variō / flōre [ablative] ¦ corōnātus; │ (having been) Crowned [perfect passive participle] ¦ with the many-coloured flower of prosperity

quicquid enim flōruī │ for however (in whatever way) I have flourished

fēlīx et beātus │ happy and blessed

nunc ā summō corruī │ Now I have fallen down from the top

glōriā prīvātus. │ (having been) deprived [perfect passive participle] of glory.

corruō, -ere, -uī, corrutus [3]: fall down

solium, -ī [2/m]: [i] seat; chair [ii] (here) throne

[i] sēderam ēlātus │ I had sat (having been) exalted (raised up)

The verb ferō (carry; bear), which will be discussed in greater depth in later posts, has unusual principal parts: ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus (why that happens will be explained)

lātus: having been carried

Those same principal parts will apply to compound forms of ferō:

ēlātus: having been lifted up

[ii] gloriā [ablative] prīvātus │ deprived of glory [literally: deprived from glory]

the ablative case can be used to express separation from something e.g. eōs timōre līberāvit │ he freed them from fear

[3]

Fortūn(a)e rota volvitur; │ the wheel of Fortune is turned

dēscendō minōrātus; │ I descend (having been) diminished

alter in altum tollitur; │ another is raised up on high

nimis exaltātus │ (having been) too exalted

rēx sedet in vertice │ the king sits at the top

caveat ruīnam! │ let him beware ruin!

nam sub axe legimus │ for below the axle we read

Hecubam rēgīnam. │ Queen Hecuba.

axis, -is [3/m]: axle (of a wheel)

minōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1] (late latin): reduce; diminish

vertex, verticis [3/m]: (here) highest point; summit; top

caveat ruīnam │ let him beware ruin; subjunctive, known in grammar as the jussive subjunctive that forms a command / suggestion usually referring to a third person rather than directly addressing somebody

Hecuba: “The name of Hecuba was a suitable inscription for the axle as she was the supreme example of Fortune's malice. From being Queen of Troy, after its sack she suffered such misery as a captive of the Greeks that the gods, out of pity, turned her into a dog.” (Betts)

Level 4; literature; Mediaeval; Carmina Burana: Fortune plango vulnera [1]: text / translation / pronunciation notes

In the Mediaeval world, they knew that power did not last forever; unfortunately, some of our 21^st century leaders think it does.

[1]

Fortūne plangō vulnera │ I lament the wounds of Fortune

stillantibus ocellīs, │ with dripping (flowing / tearful) eyes

quod sua michi mūnera / subtrahit rebellis. │ because she rebelliously withdraws her gifts from me

vērum est, quod legitur │ It is true what is read

fronte capillāta, / sed plērumque sequitur / Occāsiō calvāta. │ Opportunity has hair at the front, but generally a bald patch follows

[2]

In Fortūne soliō │ On the throne of Fortune

sēderam ēlātus, │ I had sat exalted (raised up;  elevated)

prōsperitātis variō / flōre corōnātus; │ Crowned with the many-coloured flower of prosperity

quicquid enim flōruī │ for however (in whatever way) I have flourished

fēlīx et beātus │ happy and blessed

nunc ā summō corruī │ now I have fallen down from the top

glōriā prīvātus. │ deprived of glory.

[3]

Fortūne rota volvitur; │ the wheel of Fortune is turned

dēscendō minōrātus; │ I descend diminished

alter in altum tollitur; │ another is raised up on high

nimis exaltātus │ too exalted

rēx sedet in vertice │ the king sits at the top

caveat ruīnam! │ let him beware ruin!

nam sub axe legimus │ for below the axle we read

Hecubam rēgīnam. │ Queen Hecuba.

Mediaeval pronunciation:

[i] fortūne = fortūnae; spelling change to reflect pronunication shift of Classical Latin /ae/ > /e/  

[ii] vulnera [vool-ne-ra]; all letter v’s in the text are pronounced as in Engl. very; CL did not have a /v/ sound but developed later; CL letter V represented a /u/ or /w/ but since this text is Mediaeval, the singers reflect the pronunciation change by this period; that pronunciation is also in Ecclesiastical Latin although this song is secular

[iii] michi = mihi

[iv] ocellīs: c + e as /che/ rather than CL hard /c/ [k]; similarly: dēscendō; vertice

[v] legitur: g + i as soft /g/ as in English /j/ rather than CL hard /g/ [as in get]; similarly: legimus; rēginam