Level 3+; Subjunctive [10] tenses [2] the perfect subjunctive [ii] practice

Change the indicative forms of the verb to the perfect subjunctive forms. Remember: Begin with the 3^rd principal part and remove the ending to create the perfect stem:

dīcō, dīcere, dīxī

> dīx-

To the stem add the endings:

-erim

-erīs

-erit

-erīmus

-erītis

-erint

> dīx¦erim, dīxerīs, dīxerit etc.

This applies to all verbs whether they are irregular or not:

sum, esse, fuī

fu¦erim, fuerīs, fuerit etc.

Some of these forms are rare, but the aim is for you to become familiar with the endings.

[1]

[i] laudō

[ii] stās

[iii] habitat

[iv] festināmus

[v] amātis

[vi] iuvant

[2]

[i] docētis

[ii] habeō

[iii] manēmus

[iv] rīdent

[v] tenēs

[vi] videt

[3]

[i] scrībunt 

[ii] mittimus 

[iii] legō 

[iv] dūcitis 

[v] dīcis 

[vi] currit 

[4]

[i] venit 

[ii] faciō 

[iii] capis 

[iv] audīmus

[v] fugitis

[vi] inveniunt

[5]

[i] adsum

[ii] mālō

[iii] nōn vīs

[iv] exit

[v] possumus

[vi] vultis

[vii] ferunt

[viii] trānseunt

____________________

[1]

[i] laudāverim

[ii] steterīs

[iii] habitāverit

[iv] festīnāverīmus

[v] amāverītis

[vi] iūverint

[2]

[i] docuerītis

[ii] habuerim

[iii] mānserīmus

[iv] rīserint

[v] tenuerīs

[vi] vīderit

[3]

[i] scrīpserint

[ii] mīserīmus

[iii] lēgerim

[iv] dūxerītis

[v] dīxerīs

[vi] cucurrerit

[4]

[i] vēnerit

[ii] fēcerim

[iii] cēperīs

[iv] audīverīmus

[v] fūgerītis

[vi] invēnerint

[5]

[i] adfuerim

[ii] māluerim

[iii] nōluerīs

[iv] exierit

[v] potuerīmus

[vi] voluerītis

[vii] tulerint

[viii] trānsierint

Level 3+; Subjunctive [9] the tenses [2] perfect subjunctive [i]

The perfect subjunctive will have its first mention in the next post on usage (negative jussive / prohibitive) and so we will look at its forms here:

Image #1: The perfect subjunctive is formed from:

[i] perfect tense stem (from the 3^rd principal part)

amō, amāre, amāv¦ī > amāv-

habeō, habēre, habu¦ī > habu-

vīvō, vīvere, vīx¦ī > vīx-

capiō, capere, cēp¦ī > cēp-

audiō, audīre, audīv¦ī > audīv-

[ii] + the endings: -erim, -erīs, -erit, -erīmus, -erītis, -erint [-eri- / -erī- + personal endings]

amāverim, amāverīs, amāverit, amāverīmus, amāverītis, amāverint

habuerim, habuerīs etc.

vīxerim, vīxerīs etc.

cēperim, cēperīs etc.

audīverim, audiverīs etc.

Image #2: all verbs – including irregular verbs – form the perfect subjunctive in the same way.

Image #3: An important point to note about the perfect subjunctive is that, apart from the first person singular, the formation and endings look the same as the future perfect tense. There are differences in terms of the use of long vowels (marked in the table and referred to in the video), but in a text which has not been edited with macrons, it is not always easy to distinguish them. Remember: slow and steady! Don’t try to juggle too many concepts at the same time, and simply focus on the use of the perfect subjunctive in the different contexts discussed in subsequent posts.

Describing objects [7]: stone and related materials (ii)

Several words that refer to stone and related materials

[i] lapis, lapidis [3/m]: a stone

lapis pretiōsus: a precious stone

lapideus, -a, -um: of stone

mūrus lapideus │ a stone wall

Lapideus sum, commovēre mē miser nōn audeō (Plautus) │ I'm made of stone / I’m petrified; in my wretchedness, I dare not move myself

[ii] saxum, -ī [2/n]: any large (rough) stone; rock

multa sepulcra ex saxō fōrmāta:  many tombs fashioned (shaped) out of stone

saxeus, -a, -um: (made of) stone

et sit cruor in omnī terrā Aegyptī tam in ligneīs vāsīs quam in saxeīs (Vulgate) │ and let there be blood throughout all the land of Egypt, both in vessels of wood and in vessels of stone

[iii] petra, -ae [1/f]: rock

nōn sitiērunt in dēsertō cum ēdūceret eōs aquam dē petrā prōdūxit eīs et scidit petram et flūxērunt aquae (Vulgate) │ They didn't thirst when he led them through the deserts; he brought forth for them water from the rock; he split the rock also, and the waters gushed out

[iv] silex, silicis [3 m/f]: pebble, stone, flint; lava

siliceus, -a, -um: (made of) flint

nōn minus saxa silicea, quae neque ferrum neque ignis potest per sē dissolvēre, cum ab ignī sunt percalefacta, acētō sparsō dissiliunt et dissolvuntur (Vitruvius) │ Even rocks of lava, which neither iron nor fire alone can dissolve, split into pieces and dissolve when heated with fire and then sprinkled with vinegar

[v] later, -is [3/n]: brick; ingot / bar (made of precious metal)

laterīcius, -a, -um: (made of) brick

turris laterīcia: a brick tower

laterīciōrum parietum strūctūrae (Vitruvius): literally: structures of brick walls = brick wall constructions

Caesar describes the construction of a musculus (literally: ‘little mouse’), “a shelter used by soldiers while engaged in undermining the walls of a hostile fortification. It was made of wood with a sloping roof …” (Thurston Peck).

The image shows that the musculus allowed Roman soldiers some mobility and protection when doing works nearer to enemy lines.

… mūsculum pedēs LX longum ex māteriā bipedālī, quem ā turrī laterīciā ad hostium turrim mūrumque perdūcerent, facere īnstituērunt (Caesar) │ … they resolved to build a musculus, sixty feet long, of timber, two feet square, and to extend it from the brick tower to the enemy's tower and wall

[vi] marmor, -is [3/n]: marble

marmoreus, -a, -um: (made of) marble

magnum ōrnātum eī templō ratus adiectūrum, sī tēgulae marmoreae essent (Livy) │ The beauty of the temple would be enhanced, he thought, if the tiles were made of marble

tēgula, -ae [1/f]: (roof-) tile

Suetonius (referring to Augustus):

Urbem neque prō maiestāte imperiī ōrnātam et inundātiōnibus incendiīsque obnoxiam excoluit adeō, ut iūre sit glōriātus marmoream sē relinquere, quam laterīciam accēpisset.

The city, which had not been adorned in a manner worthy of the greatness of the empire and was exposed to floods and fires, he so improved that he could rightly boast he had left a city of marble which he had received made of brick.

Describing objects [6]; stone and related materials; Comenius LXV (1658); the Mason

Note: there were some minor inconsistencies in this text regarding the translation of certain words. Therefore, I have changed them to match with the Classical Latin meanings. Many of the words will be discussed in greater depth in the next post.

The mason │ faber murārius

The mason layeth a foundation │ faber murārius pōnit fundāmentum

And buildeth walls │ & struit mūrōs

Either of stones  │ sīve ē lapidibus,

Which the stone-digger   │ quōs lātomus

Getteth out of the quarry, │ ēruit in lapicidīnīs

And the stone-cutter  │& lapidārius /  lapicīda

Squareth by a rule │ conquadrat ad normam.

Or of bricks │ sive ē lateribus

Which are made │ quī formantur,

Of sand and clay  │ex arēnā & lutō,

Steeped in water, │ aquā intrītīs

And are burned in fīre. │ & excoquuntur igne.

Afterwards he plaistereth it │ dein crustat

With lime,  │ calce,

By means of a trowel, │ ope trullæ,

And garnisheth [ = renders] with │ & vestit

A rough-cast. │ tēctōriō.

Vocabulary [1]

calx, calcis [3/f]: limestone, chalk

crustō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]: cover (with, for example, plaster); Engl. deriv. ‘crust’ < La: crusta, -ae [1/f]: rind, shell, hard surface

fundamentum, -ī [2/n]: foundation; Engl. dereiv. fundamental

tēctōrium, -ī [2/n]: (a common feature in Roman architecture) plaster, stucco, fresco-painting, a wash for walls

trulla, -ae [1/f]: a small ladle, a scoop; also attested as meaning a mason’s trowel

Vocabulary [2]

mūrus, -ī [2/m]: wall

mūrārius, -ī [2/m]: mason; bricklayer; the word can stand alone although Comenius uses:

faber, fabrī [2/m]: craftsman, artisan + mūrārius

Vocabulary [3]

lapis, lapidis [3/m]: stone

Not much distinction (if any) between the following although [i] do refer to working with stone (-ārius) and cutting (-cīda) it

[i] lapidārius, -ī [2/m] / lapīcida, -ae [1/m] / stone-cutter

[ii] lātomus, -ae [1/f]: quarryman

lapicidinae, -ārum / lautumiae, -ārum (lātomiae, -ārum) [1/f/pl]: (in Classical Latin, the nouns are usually plural) stone quarries

The idea of being sent to stone quarries can be interpreted as punishment:

dūcite, ubi ponderōsās crassās capiat compedēs. inde ībis porrō in lātomīās lapidāriās (Plautus) │ Take him where he may receive weighty and thick fetters, thence, after that, you shall go to the quarries for cutting stone. 

Note:

The use of ē / ex + ablative (discussed in the previous post) to indicate what something is made of:

ex arēnā & lutō: (made) of sand and clay

ē lapidibus: (made) of stones

ē lateribus: (made) of bricks

Level 3+; Subjunctive [8] independent uses [2] jussive [ii] practice

Translate: Let him / her / them …; (s)he / they should …; may you / you should …

Ab oppidō abeās │ May you depart from the town / You should depart from the town / Depart from the town.

[i] Tullia domō veniat.

[ii] Cum deīs labōrēs.

[iii] Per Galliam currātis.

[iv] Fīlius pauperem līberet.

[v] In Graeciā maneat.

[vi] Trōiae habitētis.

[vii] Illa ā curiā iter faciat.

[viii] Per Āsiam fugiās.

[ix] Ille cōnsulēs timeat.

[x] Ad urbem veniās.

[xi] Mātrēs cum ducibus ambulent.

[xii] Adsītis.

[xiii] Illī effugiant.

[xiv] Fabulam mihi narrēs.

[xv] Rēgīnam dēcipiās.

____________________

[i] Let Tullia come away from home. / Tullia should come away from home.

[ii] (May you) work with the gods. / You should work with the gods.

[iii] You should all run through Gaul.

[iv] Let the son free the poor man. / The son should free …

[v] May he / he should stay in Greece.

[vi] Live in Troy / You should (all) live in Troy.

[vii] Let her journey from the Senate House.

[viii] (You should) flee through Asia.

[ix] Let him / he should fear the consuls.

[x] (You should) come to the city.

[xi] Let the mothers walk with the leaders / the mothers should walk …

[xii] Be / You should (all) be present.

[xiii] Let them escape.

[xiv] You should tell the story to me.

[xv] You should deceive the queen.

Level 3+; Subjunctive [7] independent uses [2] jussive [i]

The term jussive subjunctive is from La: iubeō, -ēre [2]: command

(1) The jussive subjunctive is generally interpreted as a form of command or strong suggestion. It translates as or “Let him / her / them (do something) or, dependent upon context, should (do something)” and is used with the 3^rd person singular or plural:

dīcat │ Let him (her) say.

discēdant │  Let them depart.

discipulus discat aut discēdat │ Let the student learn or leave / the student should learn or leave.

Habeat cōnsul cōnsilia cōnsilia senātōrum │ Let the consul have the advice of the senators / The consul should have …

[i] Vulgate: What God commanded

Dīxitque Deus: Fīat lūx │ And God said: Let there be light.

Fīat firmāmentum in mediō aquārum: et dīvidat aquās ab aquīs. │ Let there be / become / be made an expanse in the middle of the waters: and let it separate the waters from the waters.

Germinet terra herbam virentem │ Let the earth bring forth green vegetation.

Fīant lūmināria in firmāmentō caelī, et dīvidant diem ac noctem, et sint in signa et tempora, et diēs et annōs │ And God said: Let there be lights in the firmament of the sky, and let them divide the day and the night, and let them be for signs and seasons and for days and years.

Prōdūcat terra animam vīventem in genere suō │ And God also said: Let the land produce the living creature (living creatures), each according to its own kind

Prōdūcant aquae rēptile animae vīventis, et volātile super terram sub firmāmentō caelī. │ Let the waters bring forth a crawling creature of living breath,  and a flying creature above the earth beneath the firmament of the sky

[ii] Cēdant arma togae, concēdat laurea linguae (Cicero) │ Let arms give way to the toga, let the laurel be granted to eloquence.

[iii] Ēmittat ad mē Pūblius (Cicero) │ Let Publius send (someone) to me

[iv] Hoc tantum sciat (Livy) │ Let him know only this.

[v] Sit fūr, at est bonus imperātor (Cicero) │ Let him be a thief [he may be a thief], at least he is a good general.

(2) The jussive subjunctive can also be 2^nd person singular or plural:

Taceās, Antonī! │ Be quiet, Antony! [Literally: May you be quiet / you should be quiet]

[i] Abeās! (Plautus) │ Be off!

[ii] From the student song Gaudeāmus igitur:

Abeās ad īnferōs, │ May you go away to the underworld,

Trānseās ad superōs │ May you cross over to the heavens

The translations could equally work as “You should go away / cross over”

[iii] Doceās iter et sacra ōstia pandās (Vergil) │ (May you) show us the way and lay open the sacred portals.

[iv] Si nihil habēbis, tamen scrībās aliquid (Cicero) │ If you have nothing (to write about / no news), write something anyhow. 

[v] Iniūriās fortūnae … dēfugiendō relinquās (Cicero) │ The wrongs of fortune … (you should) leave behind by flight.

[vi] Sī vultis, habeātis (Cicero) │ If you want, (you may) have it (go ahead and take it).

Image #2: From three into one –shows the Latin translation of a three word title of a Beatles’ song. What’s the original title?

Image #3: Latin legal advice

KEY POINTS: jussive subjunctive [i]

• from iubeō, -ēre [2]: command
• expresses a command or strong suggestion
• usually translated as “let …”, or sometimes “should …” depending on context.
• 3rd person singular or plural: let him / her / them …; (s)he should …
• 2nd person singular or plural: may you; you should …
• typically present subjunctive

Describing objects [5]; wood

[i] lignum, -ī [2/n]: wood; this is the more general word

wood (the material); (pl: firewood): also: tree, club / staff

ē / ex lignō: made of wood

ligneus, -a, -um: wooden

ponticulus ligneus: a little wooden bridge

Careful: the term lignātus does not, unlike the other words listed, refer to anything made of wood or covered with wood; lignor, lignārī, lignātus sum [1/deponent]: to fetch (fire)wood i.e. lignātus means ‘having gone to collect wood’; it cannot be used in the description of an object

(1) sīc ē lignō et ferrō, ut plostra [= plaustra] maiōra tria, arātra cum vōmeribus sex (Varro) │ thus (implements) made of wood and iron, as three large carts, six ploughs and ploughshares

(2) Quod superest, nec ipse sum nescius quōsdam circumstantium cupere audīre, cūr nōn argentō vel aurō, sed potissimum ex lignō simulācrum fierī voluerim (Apuleius Madaurensis) │ As for what remains, I myself am not unaware that some of those standing around wish to hear why I have wanted a statue to be made not of silver or gold, but rather of wood.

(3) Used in the plural

Ignem ex lignīs viridibus atque ūmidīs in locō angustō fierī iussit (Cicero) │ He ordered a fire to be made from green and damp wood in a confined place.

(4) Transferred meanings; examples from the Vulgate:

• Et erit tamquam lignum trānsplantātum iuxtā rīvulōs aquārum (Vulgate) │ And he shall be like a tree which is planted near the running waters
• germinet terra herbam virentem et facientem sēmen et lignum pōmiferum faciēns frūctum (Vulgate) │ Let the earth put forth grass, herbs yielding seed, and fruit trees bearing fruit
• et adhūc eō loquente vēnit Iūdās Scarioth ūnus ex duodecim et cum illō turba cum gladiīs et lignīs ā summīs sacerdōtibus et ā scrībīs et ā seniōribus (Vulgate) │ Immediately, while he was still speaking, Judas, one of the twelve, came – and with him a multitude with swords and clubs, from the chief priests, the scribes, and the elders

(5) equus ligneus plēnus armātīs (Augustine) │ the wooden horse full of its armed soldiers

(6) Tantisper quidem ut sīs apud mē ligneā in cūstōdiā (Plautus) │ On condition, then, that you shall be in wooden custody [ = in the stocks] at my house.

[ii] materia, -ae [1/f]: [i] timber, lumber i.e. wood used for building; Tacitus (Annalēs 1.35) distinguishes between materia (wood for building) and ligna (pl: firewood); [ii] material; matter; substance i.e. the meaning goes beyond simply ‘wood’

pōns ex māteriā │ a wooden bridge / a bridge made from timber

… ut ferē sunt quae ex vīminibus et māteriā rūsticā fīunt ut corbēs, fiscinae (Varro) │ … in genereal things which are made from wicker and of ‘country / rustic’ wood [i.e. natural / coarse] such as hampers, baskets …

Et vellem, herculēs, māteriam repperīrem aliquam quam deus tantus affluenter indueret (Apuleius) │ And, by Hercules, I would like to find [clothing] material that such a great god could wear in flowing folds.

Level 3+; Subjunctive [6] independent uses [1] hortatory [ii] practice

Translate: bear in mind that the hortatory subjunctive is expressed by “Let’s / let us …” although it may also translate as “we should” since it can also render the idea of strong suggestion.

[i] Ad Aegyptum prōcēdāmus.

[ii] Cōnsilium capiāmus.

[iii] Per īnsulam errēmus.

[iv] Ab īnsulā navigēmus.

[v] Cum hominibus discēdāmus.

[vi] Nē in oppidō cēnēmus.

[vii] Hostēs oppugnēmus.

[viii] Absīmus.

[ix] Eāmus!

[x] Surgāmus et aedificēmus. (Vulgate)

[xi] Cārissimī dīligāmus invicem. (Vulgate)

[xii] Fīnem loquendī omnēs pariter audiāmus. (Vulgate)

____________________

[i] Let us / we should proceed to Egypt.

[ii] Let’s form a plan.

[iii] Let’s wander through the island.

[iv] Let’s sail away from the island.

[v] Let us depart with the people.

[vi] Let’s not dine in town.

[vii] Let’s attack the enemy.

[viii] Let us be away.

[ix] Let’s go!

[x] Let us rise up and build.

[xi] Dearest ones, let us love one another.

[xii] Let us all hear together the conclusion of the discourse. 

Level 3+; Subjunctive [5] independent uses [1] hortatory [i]

 A sentence – any sentence – can comprise:

[1] A single independent sentence with one verb: I’m going to the shops.

[2] A principal clause (which could stand alone) together with one or more subordinate clauses (which cannot stand alone):

I’m going to the shops (principal clause) ¦ because I want to buy a cake (subordinate clause).

I’m going to the shops (principal clause) ¦ as soon as the rain stops (subordinate clause).

The Latin subjunctive may be either [1] independent (can stand alone) or [2] dependent (part of a subordinate clause)

Here, we’ll start looking at independent uses.

It’s important, I feel, to deal slowly with the subjunctive. Sure, the Roman authors will give you countless examples but they are often contained within lengthy statements and so it’s better to focus on ‘short and sweet’ ones which are memorable and clearly illustrate the usage:

hortatory subjunctive

(1) The name hortatory subjunctive is derived from the Latin verb hortor, hortārī [1/dep], meaning “to encourage” or “to urge.” It is used to exhort an action, typically translated in English as “Let us…” or, in some contexts, “we should…” The form is always the first person plural present subjunctive.

īmus: we go > eāmus: let us go

gaudēmus: we rejoice > gaudeāmus: let us rejoice

magna facta facimus │  we do great deeds > Prō patriā magna facta faciāmus │ Let us do great deeds for the fatherland.

[i] From the university student song:

Gaudeāmus igitur / Iuvenēs dum sumus, │ Let us, therefore, rejoice / while we are young.

[ii] Catullus 5:

Vīvāmus, mea Lesbia, atque amēmus, │ Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love,

rūmōrēsque senum sevēriōrum │ and the rumours of rather stern old men

omnēs ūnīus aestimēmus assis! │ let us value them all at just one penny!

[iii] Faciāmus hominem ad imāginem et similitūdinem nostram (Vulgate) │ Let us make humankind in our image and in our likeness.

[iv] Hōs latrōnēs interficiāmus (Caesar) │ Let us kill these robbers.

(2) The negative is formed with nē + the 1^st person plural present subjunctive

canimus: we sing > canāmus: let us sing > nē canāmus: let’s not sing

Nē dēspērēmus │ Let’s not despair.

Nē hīc maneāmus │ Let’s not stay here.

KEY POINTS: the hortatory subjunctive

• from hortor, -ārī [1/dep]: encourage
• always independent
• first person plural present subjunctive
• encourages action; often “let us…” in English
• negative formed with nē + 1st person plural present subjunctive

Describing objects [4]; metals (iv); don’t drink the water, and don’t put on make-up: lead

[i] plumbum, -ī [2/n]: lead

plumbum album: ‘white lead’ was the term used by the Romans for ‘tin’; stannum, -ī [2/n]: (Late Latin) tin

ē / ex plumbō: made of lead

plumbeus, -a, -um: (made of) lead

plumbea aut aēnea fistula  (Celsus) │ a lead or bronze tube

• nec mala mē ambitiō perdit nec plumbeus auster autumnusque gravis (Horace) │ Neither wicked ambition destroys me, nor the leaden south wind and the heavy autumn
• Tacē sīs, faber, quī cūdere solēs plumbeōs nummōs (Plautus) │ Be quiet, will you, smith — you who usually mints lead coins; the remark is an insult or sarcasm, implying dishonest or worthless work since since lead was never used for regular coinage.

plumbātus, -a, -um: made of lead; soldered < verb: plumbō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus [1]: make out of lead; solder with lead

lead poisoning

https://penelope.uchicago.edu/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/leadpoisoning.html

But lead also was known to be dangerous and, for that reason, pipes made of clay were preferred—as Vitruvius, who wrote during the time of Augustus, explains.

“Water conducted through earthen pipes is more wholesome than that through lead; indeed that conveyed in lead must be injurious, because from it white lead [PbCO3, lead carbonate] is obtained, and this is said to be injurious to the human system. Hence, if what is generated from it is pernicious, there can be no doubt that itself cannot be a wholesome body. This may be verified by observing the workers in lead, who are of a pallid colour; for in casting lead, the fumes from it fixing on the different members, and daily burning them, destroy the vigour of the blood; water should therefore on no account be conducted in leaden pipes if we are desirous that it should be wholesome. That the flavour of that conveyed in earthen pipes is better, is shewn at our daily meals, for all those whose tables are furnished with silver vessels, nevertheless use those made of earth, from the purity of the flavour being preserved in them" (VIII.6.10-11).”

[ii] cērussa, -ae [1/f]: white lead, ceruse; used by painters and as a skin whitener; prepared by exposing lead to the vapours of vinegar

Was Elizabeth I killed by her make-up?

The use of white lead as a pigment was detrimental to the human body and caused lead poisoning, skin damage, hair loss and in some cases eventual death. It is possible that Elizabeth I used ceruse; the portraits (the earliest being obviously on the left) would seem to suggest it.

Elizabeth got her iconic red lips through the use of cinnabar.* Cinnabar is a mineral containing mercury. Mercury poisoning can cause memory loss, depression, or in extreme cases, death. Unfortunately for her, when Elizabeth began wearing a wig following her hair loss, the wig was dyed red with even more mercury. It is not exactly surprising that by the end of her life, she was reported to be in a state of deep depression.

https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-famous-people/elizabeth-makeup-0016887

*New Latin: cinnabaris, -is [3/f]

• ōvum in acētō sī diūtius positum fuerit, cortex eius mollēscet et dissolvētur. item plumbum, quod est lentissimum et gravissimum, sī in vāse conlocātum fuerit et in eō acētum suffūsum, id autem opertum et oblītum erit, efficiētur, utī plumbum dissolvātur et fīat cērussa. (Vitruvius) │ If an egg is left for some time in vinegar, its shell will soften and dissolve. Again, if a piece of lead, which is very flexible and heavy, is put in a vase and vinegar poured over it, and the vase covered and sealed up, the lead will be dissolved and turn into white lead.
• Hīs duōbus emplastrīs color niger est… at ex bitūmine nigerrimus… ex cērussā albus (Celsus) │ In these two plasters the colour is black … but the blackest is from bitumen, … white from white-lead.

[iii] metallum, -ī [2/n]: [i] mine, quarry;  [ii] a metal (the product of mining) e.g. gold, silver, iron

metallicus, -a, -um: (Late Latin) made of metal

• Metallīs ¦ plumbī, ferrī, aeris, argentī, aurī tōta fermē Hispānia scatet (Pliny the Elder) │ The whole of Spain altogether teems with mines ¦ of lead, iron, copper, silver, and gold.
• Prīmōs inventōrēs aurī, sīcut metallōrum ferē omnium, septimō volūmine dīximus (Pliny the Elder) │ We have spoken of the first discoverers of gold, as indeed of almost all metals, in the seventh book.

Describing objects [3]; metals (iii)

[i] argentum, -ī [2/n]: silver

ex argentō: made of silver

vāsa coquīnāria ex argentō: cooking vessels made of silver

argenteus, -a,  -um: (made of) silver

nummus argenteus: a silver coin

• lectulī … aureī et argenteī (Vulgate): gold and silver couches (couches of gold and silver)
• ecce mīlle argenteōs dedī frātrī tuō (Vulgate) │ Behold, I have given your brother a thousand silver (pieces)

argentātus, -a, -um: silvery; covered with silver

Livy:

• duo exercitūs erant; scūta alterīus aurō, alterīus argentō caelāvērunt; … │ There were two armies; the shields of one they embossed with gold, those of the other with silver … = one had their shields plated with gold, the other with silver

Livy continues by using aurātus and argentātus to differentiate between the soldiers; he has already pointed out that the shields are covered with gold and silver rather than being made entirely from them:

• … tunicae aurātīs mīlitibus vērsicolōrēs, argentātīs linteae candidae (Livy)  │ Literally: for the gold-covered / gilded soldiers multi-coloured tunics, for the silvered ones tunics of white linen = the tunics of the men with gold plated shields were in variegated colours, those with the silver shields had tunics of white linen

The first image shows a Romano-British silver ingot (late 4^th – early 5^th century) found at the Tower of London (British Museum)

[ii] aes, aeris [3/n]: copper; bronze; brass; cuprum, -ī [2/n]: (Late Latin) copper

ē / ex aere: made of bronze

simulācrum ex aere factum │ a statue / image made of bronze

aēneus, -a, -um: (made of) copper, bronze

equus aēneus: a horse made of bronze

aerātus, -a, -um: covered with bronze / brass

• cum classe nāvium …, in quibus paucae erant aerātae (Caesar) │ with a fleet of … ships, some of which were strengthened with beaks of brass; the text merely states that the ships were covered with brass, but Caesar is specifically referring to the rōstrum (literally: beak), the bronze-covered ram at the prow of the ship; the whole ship could not be made of brass – it would sink!

[iii] ferrum, -ī [2/n]: iron

ē / ex ferrō: made of iron

ferreus, -a, -um: (made of) iron

uncus ferreus: an iron hook

ferrātus, -a, -um: covered with iron

hasta ferrāta: iron-pointed spear; the shaft of a Roman spear was made of hardwood, but the spearhead (which could be up to 60cm in length) was iron

portae ferrātae: iron-clad gates

faber, fabrī [2/m] ferrārius: blacksmith

[iv] chalybs, chalybis [3/m]: iron; steel

chalybēïus, -a, -um: (made of) iron / steel

Note: the rare occurrence in a vocabulary list of a diaeresis, two dots above a vowel (ï) to indicate that it is pronounced separately rather than as a diphthong [ka-ly-be-i-us]; the diaeresis exists in English, for example in the names Brontë and Zoë (the last vowel is pronounced) and, sometimes, in naïve. The diaeresis was not used in Classical Latin writing.