Level 3+; Subjunctive [75] dependent uses [7] cum-clauses (5) concessive (ii) practice

Complete the Latin sentences with the verbs listed below:

[i] Although he is good, he is not wise.

Cum __________ bonus, nōn est sapiēns.

[ii] Although the old man does not have a lot of food, he nevertheless invites friends to dinner.

Cum senex multum cibum __________, amīcōs tamen ad cēnam invītat.

[iii] Although you do not want to come with me, nevertheless you have to do this.

Cum mēcum venīre __________, hoc tamen facere dēbēs.

[iv] Although you did not want to come with me, nevertheless you had to do this.

Cum mēcum venīre __________, hoc tamen facere dēbēbās.

[v] Although he knew about the affair, he nevertheless said nothing.

Cum dē rē __________, nihil tamen dīxit.

[vi] Although the farmer was poor, he was nevertheless pious and happy.

Cum agricola pauper __________, erat pius tamen et contentus.

[vii] He did nothing to help me, although he could / was able to.

Nihil mē adiūvit, cum __________. (Cicero)

[viii] Although the forces of the enemy were greater, the Romans nevertheless overcame them.

Cum cōpiae hostium __________ maiōrēs, Rōmānī tamen eās vīcērunt.

[ix] Turnus, although he was fighting very bravely, was nevertheless defeated.

Turnus, cum fortissimē __________, tamen victus est.

[x] But although I had done everything, I was not able to recover his goodwill.

Sed, cum omnia __________, … eam voluntātem eius … recūperāre nōn potuī. (Cicero)

[xi] Although I had been asked, nevertheless I did not reply.

Cum __________, tamen nōn respondī.

[xii] Cicero, although he was / had been born in a small town, nevertheless lived in Rome.

Cicerō, cum in oppidō parvō __________, Rōmae tamen vīvēbat.

essent; esset; fēcissem; nōn habeat; nātus esset; nōlīs; nōllēs; posset; pugnāret; rogātus essem; scīret; sit

____________________

[i] sit
[ii] nōn habeat
[iii] nōlīs
[iv] nōllēs
[v] scīret
[vi] esset
[vii] posset
[viii] essent
[ix] pugnāret
[x] fēcissem
[xi] rogātus essem
[xii] nātus esset

Level 3+; Subjunctive [74] dependent uses [7] cum-clauses (4) concessive (i)

Look at the following sentence.

[A] He is lazy ¦ but [B] he gets good results.

[A] He is lazy. [B] However / nevertheless / despite that, he gets good results.

There are two opposing ideas. [A] creates the expectation that he would not get good results, but [B] shows that, despite being lazy, this has not prevented him from achieving them.

This same idea can be expressed using what is known in grammar as a concessive construction. In English, concession can be expressed in several ways.

As a concessive clause:

• Although he is lazy, he gets good results.
• Even if he is lazy, he gets good results.
• Despite / in spite of the fact that he is lazy, he gets good results.

As a concessive phrase:

• Despite being lazy, he gets good results.

English may also reinforce concession by adding words such as nevertheless. In this example, the second part of the sentence overrides or qualifies the first.

• While we welcome the Prime Minister’s statement, we nevertheless feel that he has not gone far enough.

“Concession” refers to acceptance / recognition of a fact / admission that something is true:

While we welcome the Prime Minister’s statement …

…but that admission is then set aside in a specific way; here, it does not prevent a criticism from being made:

• … we nevertheless feel …

Latin conveys this idea in a number of ways. In this post we look at one:

Apart from expressing cause and circumstance, cum + subjunctive can also express although.

[a] Frequently this is reinforced with tamen (nevertheless), making the concessive sense clear.

Cum puellam amāret, tamen ex urbe abiit. │ Although he loved the girl, he nevertheless left the city.

Militēs, cum montēs vīdissent, tamen gāvīsī sunt. │ The soldiers, although they had seen the mountains, nevertheless rejoiced.

Cum prīmī ōrdinēs concidissent, tamen ācerrimē reliquī resistēbant. (Caesar) │ Though the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted vigorously.

[b] However, tamen may not be used in the sentence and so careful reading – and thinking – in context is needed to identify whether the clause is concessive:

Cum hostēs fortēs essent, Rōmānī vīcērunt. │ Although the enemy were brave, the Romans won.

A way of ‘testing’ whether the sentence is expressing a concessive idea is mentally to reword it:

• The enemies were brave, but the Romans won.
• The enemies were brave. However / nevertheless / despite that, the Romans won.

i.e. despite the fact that the enemies were brave, that did not prevent the Romans from winning.

Think about it: “When / since the enemies were brave, the Romans won” does not make sense!

Examples:

[i] Cum multum labōrāverit, parum profēcit.

Think: he has worked hard, ¦ but he has made little progress

> Although he has worked hard, he has made little progress.

[ii] Cum graviter vulnerātus esset, pugnāvit.

Think: he had been seriously wounded. However / nevertheless / despite that, he fought.

> Although he had been seriously wounded, he fought.

Would any other translation of those two examples make sense?

Since he has worked hard, he has made little progress.

Since he had been seriously injured, he fought.

No, they wouldn’t. 

Level 3+; Comenius (1658) CXLIII; the besieging of a city [1] text and translation

Military terminology is a frequent feature of Roman writing, and there is a very wide range of vocabulary associated with it.

Roman writers usually depict what they considered important, and this can skew our perception of ordinary life, which is less frequently described in depth. We might be forgiven for thinking that Romans were perpetually fighting. In fact, although the empire’s population may have reached around 70 million, most inhabitants never directly experienced warfare, which was typically confined to particular regions.

Nevertheless, war — and success in war — was a crucial part of Roman identity, and military campaigns were recorded, from a Roman perspective, by authors such as Caesar, Livy and Tacitus. For that reason, military vocabulary is common in Latin prose.

In this short text, Comenius makes extensive use of such vocabulary and, while some of it refers to weaponry unknown to the Romans, much of what you read here forms an important part of historical writing.

The besieging of a city │ Obsidium Urbis

[1]

A city that is like to [going to / about to] endure a siege, | Urbs passūra obsidiōnem,

is first summoned by a trumpeter | prīmum prōvocātur per tūbicinem (1)

and (is) persuaded to yield. | et invītātur ad dēditiōnem.

Which if it refuseth to do, | Quod sī abnuat facere,

it is assaulted by the besiegers | oppugnātur ab obsidentibus

and (is) taken by storm. | et occupātur.

[2]

Either by climbing over the walls with scaling-ladders (2) | Vel mūrōs per scālās (2) trānscendendō,

or (by) breaking (them) down with battering-engines (3) | aut diruendō arietibus (3),

or (by) demolishing (them) with great guns (4) | aut dēmōliendō tormentīs (4),

or (by) breaking through the gates with a petard (5) | vel dirumpendō portās exōstrā (5),

or (by) casting granadoes [“grenades”; cannonballs] (6) | vel ēiaculandō globōs tormentāriōs (6),

out of mortar-pieces (7) | ē mortāriīs (ballistīs) (7),

into the city, by engineers (8) | in urbem per ballistāriōs (8),

who lye behind leaguer-baskets  (9) | quī latitant post gerrās (9),

or (by) overthrowing (it) with mines by pioneers (10) | vel subvertendō cūniculīs per fossōrēs (10).

[3]

They that are besieged defend themselves from the walls (11) | Obsessī dēfendunt sē dē mūrīs (11),

with fire and stones, &c. | ignibus, lapidibus, etc.,

or break out by force (12) | aut ērumpunt (12).

A city that is taken by storm | Urbs vī expugnāta,

is plundered, | diripitur,

destroyed, | exciditur,

and sometimes laid even with the ground. | interdum aequātur solō.

Level 3+; Subjunctive [73] dependent uses [7] cum-clauses (3) practice

Complete the Latin quotations with the verbs listed below.

Notes: All of the quotations are from a narrow selection of Cicero’s letters to Atticus. This shows not only the frequency with which cum-clauses are used, gives practice in how different tense forms in cum-clauses are translated.  Literal translations are given in brackets.

[1] With the indicative

[a]

[i] Nevertheless, I am relieved when I talk with you despite being away, and even more when I read your letters.

Tamen adlevor, cum __________ tēcum absēns, multō etiam magis, cum tuās litterās __________.

[ii] You had only just left yesterday, when Trebatius came.

Commodum discesserās heri, cum Trebātius __________.

[iii] And you generally do it most carefully, when I have told you [literally: when it has been told to you by me]

Quod dīligentissimē facere solēs, cum ā mē tibi __________.

[b] All of the following quotations refer to future actions.

[i] And that long period of time, when I shall not be (here), moves me more.

Longumque illud tempus, cum nōn __________, magis mē movet.

[ii] You will write when you [will] know

Scrībēs ad mē, cum __________.

[iii] When I see [ = I shall have seen] you, you will know.

Cum __________ tē, sciēs.

[iv] Therefore, when you can [= you will be able], that is when you have attended to [= will have given attention to] Sextus’ auction, you will come back to see us.

Quārē, cum __________, id est cum Sextī auctiōnī operam __________, revīsēs nōs.

[v] When I arrive / have arrived there [ = will have arrived], and understand / have understood [ = will have understood] what the situation is …

Cum illūc __________ __________que, quid negōtiī sit, …

[vi] But you, when you [will] have read it, will judge for yourself.

Sed tū, cum __________, exīstumābis.

[vi] When I meet [ = will have met] Brutus, I shall write everything in detail.

Brūtum cum __________, perscrībam omnia.

convēnerō; dederis; dictum est; erō; intellēxerō; lēgeris; legō; loquor; poteris; sciēs; vēnerō; vēnit; vīderō

[2] With the subjunctive

[i] It is difficult since / when I am away.

Difficile est, cum __________.

[ii] It is enough, especially since these days are being spent by you in our important business.

Satis est, praesertim cum hī tibi diēs in magnō nostrō negōtiō __________.

[iii] But since they have done everything for your sake, I am afraid …

Cum enim tuā causā __________omnia, vereor, …

[iv] Since he is acting on [using] his mother’s advice … why should I intervene?

Mātris cōnsiliō cum __________ … quid mē interpōnam?

[v] Since I was sending Alexander on that business, I gave him this letter.

Ad eam rem cum __________ Alexandrum, hās eī dedī litterās.

[vi] But as I was reading the ‘Academics’ on the boat, I noticed my mistake.

Cum autem in nāvī __________ Acadēmicōs, adgnōvī errātum meum.

[vii] We seemed to be talking to one another, when I was at Tusculum.

Conloquī vidēbāmur, in Tusculānō cum __________.

[viii] This I have written while sailing, as I was getting near to Pompeii, Aug. 19.

Haec scrīpsī nāvigāns, cum prope Pompēiānum __________, XIIII Kal.

[ix] For on the 17th, when / after I had reached Velia, Brutus heard (of it).

Nam, XVI Kal. Sept. cum __________ Veliam, Brūtus audīvit;

[x] And when / after I had heard these things …

Quae cum __________ …

[xi] After a postman had arrived without any letters from you …

Tabellārius ad mē cum sine litterīs tuīs __________…

[xii] On the 9th after I (had) got up before daybreak to go on from Sinuessa, and before dawn I had reached the Tirenian bridge at Menturnae, …

V Īdūs cum ante lūcem dē Sinuessānō __________ __________que dīlūculō ad pontem Tirēnum, …

[xiii] Your uncle, Caecilius, since he was (being) cheated out of a large sum of money by P. Varius, …

Caecilius, avunculus tuus, ā P. Variō cum magnā pecūniā __________ …

[xiv] And since these things had been done …

Quae cum __________ …

[xv] Earlier, when / since I had been informed [ = I had been made more certain] by our (friend) Atticus’ letter about your great generosity …

Anteā cum litterīs Atticī nostrī dē tuā summā līberālitāte … __________ …

absim; accēderem; audīssem; certior factus essem; cōnsūmantur; essem; essent ācta; fēcerint; fraudārētur; legerem; mitterem; surrēxissem; ūtātur; vēnissem; vēnissem; vēnisset

____________________

[1]

[a]

[i] loquor; legō

[ii] vēnit

[iii] dictum est

[b]

[i] erō

[ii] sciēs

[iii] vīderō

[iv] poteris; dederis

[v] vēnerō; intellēxerō

[vi] lēgeris

[vii] convēnerō

[2]

[i] absim

[ii] cōnsūmantur

[iii] fēcerint

[iv] ūtātur

[v] mitterem

[vi] legerem

[vii] essem

[viii] accēderem

[ix] vēnissem

[x] audīssem

[xi] vēnisset

[xii] surrēxissem; vēnissem

[xiii] fraudārētur

[xiv] essent ācta

[xv] certior factus essem

Level 3 (review); Comenius (1658) CXXVI; merchandizing [4]: from the authors

Eho senex minimī pretī (Plautus)

• Hey, you worthless old man

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/09/051225-level-3-retort-genitive-of.html

Delphōs vēnum pecus ēgī (Pacuvius)

• I drove the cattle to Delphi for sale.

Respondē: quis mē vendit? (Plautus)

• Answer! Who’s selling me?

Nunc tūsculum ēmī hoc et corōnās flōreās (Plautus)

• Now I've bought this small amount of incense and some wreaths of flowers

tum dēnique ager emētur cum idem expediet ēmptōrī et vēnditōrī (Cicero)

• Then at last the land will be bought, when it is advantageous to both buyer and seller alike

Nunc quasi ducentīs Philippīs ēmī fīlium, quōs dare prōmīsī mīlitī (Plautus)

• Now I have, as it were, bought my son for 200 Philippi*, which I promised to give to the soldier.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/170625-level-3-summary-of-of-uses-of_13.html

*refers to gold coins first minted in Macedonia, but not standard denominations in Ancient Rome; it is used in Plautus to describe any high value gold coins

Ūnum quodque istōrum verbum nummīs Philippīs aureīs nōn potest auferre hinc ā mē sī quis ēmptor vēnerit (Plautus)

• Not a single one of those words do I part with for golden sovereigns, if any buyer should come.

hominēs in piscīnā inventī sunt, Stratō in vincula coniectus est, atque etiam in tabernā eius nummī, nēquāquam omnēs, reperiuntur (Cicero)

• The men were found in the pool, Strato was thrown into chains, and even in his shop some coins — by no means all — were discovered.

Nam Antōnius Augustī sorōre contemptā postquam Cleopatram dūxit uxōrem, monētam eius nōmine … iussit ferīrī (Honoratus)

• For once Augustus’ sister had been rejected, and after he married Cleopatra, Antony ordered a coin to be struck in her name.

argentum afferat mercātor prō asinīs (Plautus)

• the trader may bring the money [silver] for the asses

nam commercium in eō agrō nēminī est (Cicero)

• for there are no traders in that area [literally: nobody has trading rights …]

Quis est Sergius? armiger Catilīnae, stīpātor   tuī corporis, signifer sēditiōnis, concitātor tabernāriōrum (Cicero)

• Who is Sergius? Catiline’s soldier, your bodyguard, the standard-bearer of sedition, the agitator of the shopkeepers

Tum repente Ancōnitānum quendam, L. Clōdium, pharmacopōlam circumforāneum … (Cicero)

• Then he suddenly approached a certain Lucius Clodius of Ancona, a travelling quack, …

pharmacolopōla, -ae [1/m]: somebody who sells medicines; pharmacist, but the word can also refer to a medical “quack” i.e. somebody peddling ineffective drugs. That Cicero uses the adjective circumforāneus is certainly derogatory – this salesman is itinerant, wandering from town to town and with no fixed establishment in, for example, a market place.

pharmacopōla circumforāneus

Level 3 (review); Comenius (1658) CXXVI; merchandizing [3]: vocabulary and notes (2) Can “warehouses” be interesting?

There is a difference between simply learning the meaning of a word on a page – and exploring the word. This is particularly beneficial in Latin since the language continues to be used over centuries, long after it was the exclusive “property” of the Romans. As you move from early Plautus through the Classical period and into the worlds of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, meanings of words can alter to reflect understanding at specific points in time. In the case of Comenius’ work, the translations of certain words and expressions provoke enquiry since the book was targeted at 17^th century concepts for 17^th century school pupils. Two occur in this text:

Mercēs, aliunde allātae, vel commūtantur in [i] domō commerciōrum, vel expōnuntur vēnum in [ii] tabernīs mercimōniōrum

[i] domus commerciōrum: common in England were corn exchanges, large buildings, often with vaulted ceilings such as the Corn Exchange at Sleaford, Lincolnshire. Many of them have been repurposed; the Corn Exchange at Stamford is now a theatre.

[ii] Charles Hoole, the translator of Comenius’ work renders in tabernīs mercimōniōrum as “warehouses” which we most often associate with large-scale storage of bulk goods prior to distribution. However, early understanding of the term also includes a place where goods were bought; the Mediaeval image clearly shows tabernae, stalls with goods on sale within a building. That original wider sense is still retained in the UK company name “Carphone Warehouse”.

During the Ancient Roman period, horreum, -ī [2/n] referred to a warehouse, storehouse or granary. The image shows horrea constructed c.145-150 at the port of Ostia

Level 3 (review); Comenius (1658) CXXVI; merchandizing [2]: vocabulary and notes (1)

[i] nouns: places and activity

commercium, -ī [2/n]: trade; commerce

mercātūra, -ae [1/f]: merchandizing

also: mercātus, -ūs [4/m]

merx, mercis [3/f]: goods; merchandise

mercimōnium, -ī [2/n]: merchandise

taberna, -ae [1/f]: shop; stall

[ii] (Mercēs) … expōnuntur vēnum │ Goods … are displayed for sale

vēnum: an accusative masculine noun used in compounds to express ‘for sale’

vēnumdō, -are [1]: (literally) to give for sale; this form was shortened to vendō, -ere [3]: sell

[iii] nouns: money

monēta, -ae [1/f]: coin; money; can also refer to the place where money is produced i.e. the mint

also: nummus, -ī [2/m]: coin

pecūnia, -ae [1/f]: money

pretium, -ī [2/n]: price

[iv] nouns: measurement

lībra, -ae [1/f]: balance; pound; scales

ulna, -ae [1/f]: [i] elbow [ii] a measurement of length, an ell [England: 45 inches; Scotland: 37 inches]; the text uses eln which is a Middle English form

also: cubitum, -ī [2/n]: [i] elbow [ii] a measurement of length, a cubit, the distance from the tip of the middle finger to the elbow. This was an informal measurement but could refer to between 35 and 60cm.

Et sīc faciēs eam: trecentōrum cubitōrum erit longitūdō arcae, quīnquāgintā cubitōrum lātitūdō, et trīgintā cubitōrum altitūdō illīus. Fenestram in arcā faciēs, et in cubitō cōnsummābis summitātem eius (Vulgate)

And you shall make it in this way: the length of the ark will be three hundred cubits, the width fifty cubits, and its height thirty cubits. You shall make a window in the ark, and in a cubit you shall finish the top of it

[v] nouns: people

emptor, -ōris [3/m]: purchaser; buyer < emō, -ere, ēmī, ēmptus: buy

tabernārius, -ī [2/m]: shopkeeper

venditor, -ōris [3/m]: seller

scrūtārius, -iī [2/m]: this is a rare word with different meanings [i] dealer in second-hand clothes; [ii] inspector; [iii] broker i.e. a mediator between buyer and seller. It is derived from scrūta, -ōrum [2/n/pl]: rubbish, broken trash, the word exists in English as scrutiny.

circumforāneus, -a, -us: moving from market to market; itinerant. Comenius uses the adjective as a noun to describe pedlars or hawkers i.e.those who move from place to place selling goods. The literal meaning of the adjective is ‘around the forum’ and refers to those who did not have fixed premises in the market place but wandered around it while conducting business.

mercātor, -ōris [3/m]: merchant

Tabernāriī, circumforāneī, & scrūtāriī, etiam volunt dīcī mercātōrēs │ Shopkeepers, pedlars, and brokers, would also be called merchants.

i.e. mercātor is used in a very general sense to refer to anybody who is involved in buying, selling and trading. Cicero uses the term to refer to a purchaser of goods:

… in Achāiam, Asiam, Pamphȳliam sūmptū pūblicō et lēgātiōnis nōmine mercātor signōrum tabulārumque pictārum missus est.

… he was sent at the public expense, and with the title of ambassador, into Achaia, Asia, and Pamphylia as a purchaser of statues and paintings.

[vi] verbs (1)

addīcō, -ere [3]: (here) ‘deliver’ in the sense of assign something to the highest bidder

commūtō, -āre [1]: exchange; barter

expōnō, -ere [3]: display; set out

indicō, -āre [1]: show; declare

mēnsūrō, -āre [1]: measure; estimate

ostentō, -āre [1]: show; show off; that the translator uses ‘braggeth’ is conveying the second sense

• Venditor ostentat │  the seller boasts – and they still do! You can hear them bragging loudly about their products in markets everywhere.

ponderō, -āre [1]: weigh

vendō, -ere [3]: sell

[vii]

afferō, afferre [irregular]: bring (to); convey

offerō, offerre [irreg.]: offer

irregular verbs (level 3); fero and its compounds

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/irregular%20verbs%20%28level%203%29%3B%20fero%20and%20its%20compounds

verbs (2)

The text contains both [1] passive verb forms, and [2] deponent verbs

[1]

• Mercēs … commūtantur … expōnuntur vēnum … venduntur

Goods … are exchanged … (are) displayed for sale … (are) sold

Perfect passive participles:

• Mercēs … aliunde allātae … mēnsūrātae … ponderātae

Goods (having been) brought from somewhere else … (having been) measured … (having been) weighed

Passive infinitive:

• etiam volunt dīcī mercātōrēs

(They) also want to be called merchants.

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/passive%20voice

[2] deponent verbs: look passive, but are active in meaning

Some 17^th century haggling:

[i] liceor, -ērī [2/deponent]: bid (for); make an offer (for)

• Emptor licētur │ The buyer ‘cheapneth’ i.e. makes a bid / an offer

[ii] By extension:

• Sī quis contrālicētur │ If any one bids against him i.e. makes a counteroffer

[iii] polliceor, -ēre [2/deponent]: promise

Comenius constructs this text well, and he shows both a passive and a deponent verb in the same sentence:

• eī rēs addīcitur [passive] quī pollicētur [deponent] plūrimum │ the thing is delivered to the one who promises the most

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/deponent%20verbs

Level 3 (review); Comenius (1658) CXXVI; merchandizing [1]: text and translation

Merchandizing │ Mercātūra

[1]

Wares | Mercēs,

(having been) brought from other places | aliunde allātae,

are either exchanged | vel commūtantur

in an exchange, | in domō commerciōrum,

or exposed to sale [i.e. put out / displayed] | vel expōnuntur vēnum

in warehouses, | in tabernīs mercimōniōrum,

and they are sold | & venduntur

for money, | prō pecūniā (monētā),

having been either measured | vel mēnsūrātae

with an eln, | ulnā,

or weighed | vel ponderātae

in a pair of balances. | lībrā.

[2]

Shop-keepers, | Tabernāriī,

pedlars, | circumforāneī,

and brokers, | & scrūtāriī,

would also be called | etiam volunt dīcī

merchants. | mercātōrēs.

[3]

The seller | Venditor

braggeth of a thing | ostentat

that is to be sold, | rem prōmercalem,

and setteth the rate [price] of it. | & indicat pretium.

[4]

The buyer cheapneth | Emptor licētur,

and offereth the price. | & pretium offert.

If any one | Sī quis

bid against him, | contrālicētur,

the thing is delivered to him | eī rēs addīcitur

that promiseth the most. | quī pollicētur plūrimum.

Level 3+; Subjunctive [72] dependent uses [7] cum-clauses (2) cause; circumstance

When cum is used with the subjunctive, it has two meanings. In this post we will look at one.

When used with the subjunctive, cum does not primarily indicate time. Instead, it introduces a clause that provides background information against which the main action is to be understood.

That background information may convey:

[1] the reason why something happened: causal; the translation will frequently render cum + subjunctive as “since” or “as” in the sense of “because”

[i] A phrase commonly found in Cicero’s speeches:

Quae cum ita sint [present subjunctive], ¦ iste homō āmēns ac perditus aliā mēcum ratiōne pugnat.

And as this is the case, ¦ that senseless and profligate man attempts to combat me in another manner.

Literally: since these things are so, but can be rendered in various ways e.g. ‘that being the case’

[ii] Similarly:

Quae cum ita essent [imperfect subjunctive], … (Cicero) │ Since these things were so …

[iii] Cum tam diū nāvigārent [imperfect subjunctive], nautae cupere coepērunt domum petere │ Since they were sailing for such a long time, the sailors began to desire to go home.

[2] the circumstances in which something happened: circumstantial; the translation will frequently render cum + subjunctive as “when” or “while”

Cum essem ōtiōsus in Tusculānō, accēpī tuās litterās.

When / while I was at leisure in my house at Tusculum, I received your letter.

• This statement does not infer a cause: Cicero did not receive the letter because of where he was, but what he was doing / the circumstances he was in when he received it. Although ‘when’ is used, the focus is not on time.

Cum Rōmae essem ... cotīdiē tamen hōrae ... longae vidēbantur. (Cicero) │ When I was at Rome … still the hours every day … seemed long.

• It is not a reference to a specific point in time, but rather to the situation / circumstances Cicero was in when he felt this way.

… inventus est senātor quī, cum iūdex esset, in eōdem iūdiciō et ab reō pecūniam acciperet (Cicero) │ A senator was found who, while he was a judge, received money from the defendant in the same trial

• It isn’t that the senator became a judge and, when he did, the defendant walked into the courtoom and gave him money! The imperfect subjunctive describes the circumstances in which he received the money.

The pluperfect subjunctive in this context may be translated as ‘after’ emphasising circumstances that had taken place before the action of the main verb:

Cum lūmen cōnspexissent nautae intellēxērunt sē īnsulam invēnisse.  │ After they had observed the light, the sailors understood that they had found the island.

Note: the causal and circumstantial clauses are not two different constructions. In practice, there is no distinction in the Latin sentences and, when translating, it is often a matter of interpretation of context as to which word(s) would be the most appropriate.

Sometimes the meaning is explicit. Here, both sentences clearly convey cause:

Id difficile nōn est cum tantum equitātū valeāmus [present subjunctive] │ This is not difficult since we are so strong with our cavalry.

Turnō fugiendum erat cum pār Aenēae pār nōn esset [imperfect subjunctive] │ Turnus, since he was not equal to Aeneas, had to flee.

However, the distinction can be blurred:

Cum mīlitēs oppidō appropinquārent, hostēs aggressī sunt. │ When / since the soldiers were approaching the town, the enemy attacked.

The cum-clause shows the circumstances in which the enemy attacked, or the cause that led to it.

It would be unproductive to ponder too much on whether one word was more appropriate than the other. Unless the text is absolutely explicit, there can be more than one possibility.

The key point to remember is that the emphasis is not on time, but on the situation, conditions, or reasoning that form the background to the main clause.

The examples given below offer alternative translations of cum and show a range of subjunctive tenses:

[i] Nimis abes diū, praesertim cum sīs [present subjunctive] in propinquīs locīs (Cicero) │ You are away too long, especially when / since you are in nearby places.

[ii] Puerī, cum pater iānuam cūstōdīret [imperfect subjunctive], mūrōs ascendērunt. │ The boys, since their father was guarding the door, climbed the walls.

[iii] Cum Rōmae habitārēs [imperfect subjunctive] nōnne cibum bonum emere poterās? │ When / while / since you were living in Rome, surely you were able to buy good food?

[iv] Ignōsce mihi, quod, cum anteā accūrātissimē … ad tē scrīpserim [perfect subjunctive], eādem dē rē saepius scrībam (Cicero) │ Pardon me for writing again on the same subject, when I have already written very fully to you …

[v] Sed tamen nōn possum reprehendere cōnsilium tuum, praesertim cum egomet in prōvinciam nōn sim profectus [perfect subjunctive; deponent verb] (Cicero) │ But nevertheless I cannot criticise your decision, especially ¦ since I myself have not gone to a province.

[vi] Militēs, cum montēs vīdissent [pluperfect subjunctive], gavīsī sunt. │ The soldiers rejoiced since they had seen the mountains.

[vii] Quod cum tam multī hominēs honestissimī audīssent [pluperfect subjunctive], statim ad mē dēfertur (Cicero) │ And since / when so many very honest men had heard it, it was [literally: it is] immediately reported to me.

[viii] Equidem ut dē mē cōnfitear, iūdicēs, ¦ cum multae mihi ā C. Verre īnsidiae terrā marīque factae sint [perfect subjunctive; passive] … (Cicero) │ Indeed, judges, if I may make a confession about myself, since many attacks have been made against me by Gaius Verres both on land and at sea …

[ix] Quod cum esset factum [pluperfect subjunctive; passive], adiimus ad Caesarem (Cicero) │ Since / when that was / had been done we approached Caesar…

[x] Cum hostēs urbem intrāvissent, cīvēs fugiēbant. │ After the enemy had entered the city, the citizens began to flee.

[xi] Heri, cum ex aliōrum litterīs cognōvissem dē Antōnī adventū … (Cicero) │ Yesterday, when  / after I (had) learned about Anthony’s arrival from other people’s letters …

Level 3+; Subjunctive [71] dependent uses [7] cum-clauses (1) temporal (not with the subjunctive)

The word cum has two separate functions:

[1] It is a preposition with the ablative case meaning ‘(together) with’

[2] It is a conjunction which, depending upon context, can mean ‘when’, ‘since’ or ‘although’

Here, we are looking at its use as a conjunction introducing subordinate clauses.

Cum may be followed either by an indicative verb, or a subjunctive verb. In this post, we will focus only on its use with an indicative verb.

indicative

When used with the indicative, cum means ‘when’; it introduces a temporal clause that focusses on the time / period when the action in the main clause occurs:

[i] Cum nimis dolēmus [present indicative], ¦ lacrimās fundimus. │ When we grieve too much, ¦ we shed tears.

[i] Militēs, ¦ cum montēs vīdērunt [perfect indicative], ¦ gāvīsī sunt. │ The soldiers, when they saw the mountains, ¦ rejoiced.

[ii] Maximā sum laetitiā adfectus ¦ cum audīvī [perfect indicative] cōnsulem tē factum esse (Cicero) │ I was very much pleased ¦ when I heard that you had been made a consul.

[iii] Ea, quae iam tum, ¦ cum aderās [imperfect indicative], ¦ offendere eius animum intellegēbam … (Cicero) │ Those things which I already understood at the time, ¦ when you were present, ¦ to be offending his feelings …

[iv] … tum, ¦ cum in Asiā rēs māgnās permultī āmīserant [pluperfect indicative] (Cicero)│ at that time, ¦ when many had lost great fortunes in Asia

In Latin, unlike in English, future tenses are used in the clause of time:

[v] Signa nostra … cum commodissimē poteris [future indicative], velim impōnās (Cicero) │ I would like you to ship the statues when you can [literally: when you will be able to] do so most conveniently.

When reading the letters of Cicero, note that, when he writes about when something will happen, he very frequently uses the future perfect i.e. indicating what will have happened. English translation can be looser, whereas the Latin is precise, indicating the completion of the future action.

[vi] Est igitur animus in hortīs; quōs tamen īnspiciam, cum vēnerō (Cicero) │ So my mind is set on the gardens: however I'll have a look at them, when I arrive [literally: when I shall have arrived].

[vii] Ex mē, cum vēneris, cognōscēs (Cicero) │ You will find out from me when you arrive / you have arrived [literally: when you will have arrived]

[viii] Quid sit, sciēmus, cum vēneris (Cicero) │ We shall know what it is, when you arrive / you have arrived.

The English translations of the following two quotations do emphasise that sense of completion. In both of them Cicero is distinctly looking ahead to actions that he will have done.

[ix] Luccēius quid agat, scrībam ad tē, cum Caesarem vīderō, quī aderit bīduō (Cicero) │ How Lucceius is getting on I will write and tell you, when I have seen [literally: when I shall have seen] Caesar, who will be here in a couple of days’ time.

[x] Cum perspexerō voluntātēs nōbilium, scrībam ad tē (Cicero) │ When I have grasped / discovered the intentions of the nobles, I shall write to you.

The future perfect tense was discussed here:

23.10.24: Level 2; reading; dē porculō [4]; future perfect tense [1]; introduction

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/231024-level-2-reading-de-porculo-4.html

25.10.24: Level 2; future perfect tense [2]; forms of the future perfect tense

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/251024-level-2-future-perfect-tense-2.html

25.10.24: Level 2; future perfect tense [3]; practice [1]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/251024-level-2-future-perfect-tense-3.html

27.10.24: Level 2; future perfect tense [4]: practice [2]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/271024-level-2-future-perfect-tense-4.html

27.10.24: Level 2; future perfect tense [5]: practice [3]

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/271024-level-2-future-perfect-tense-5.html

Level 3 (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [19]: A Roman Victory near Bibracte

Language focus: ablative absolute

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/ablative%20absolute

Equitātū contrā hostēs missō Caesar suās cōpiās in proximum collem subdūxit. Intereā ipse in colle mediō aciem instrūxit legiōnum quattuor veterānārum; sed in summō iugō duās legiōnēs collocārī atque tōtum montem hominibus complērī iussit. Inde diū et ācriter est pugnātum. Tandem spē amissā hostēs, qui impetum nostrōrum sustinēre nōn poterant, sē fugae mandābant. Orgetorigis fīlia atque ūnus ē fīliīs est captus. Quartō diē Helvētiī in fīnēs Lingonum pervēnērunt atque legātōs ad Caesarem dē pāce mīsērunt.

____________________

After the cavalry had been sent against the enemy, Caesar led his forces up onto the nearest hill. Meanwhile he himself drew up the battle line halfway up the hill with four veteran legions; but on the summit ridge he ordered two legions to be posted and the entire mountain to be filled with men. Then the fighting went on for a long time and fiercely. At last, with hope (having been) lost, the enemy, who were unable to withstand the attack of our men, committed themselves to flight. Orgetorix’s daughter and one of his sons were captured. On the fourth day the Helvetii reached the territory of the Lingones and sent envoys to Caesar to negotiate peace.

Level 3+; Subjunctive [70] dependent uses [6] indirect questions (7); indirect questions in context; Cicero’s seven questions to Atticus

The following quotation from Cicero is a good example of an extended series of indirect questions which are introduced by interrogative words, or yes-no questions or double / alternative questions

Dē istīs rēbus exspectō tuās litterās, quid Arrīus nārret, quō animō sē dēstitūtum ferat, et quī cōnsulēs parentur, utrum, ut populī sermō, Pompēius et Crassus an, ut mihi scrībitur, cum Gabīniō Servius Sulpicius, et num quae novae lēgēs et num quid nōvī omnīnō, et, quoniam Nepōs proficīscitur, cuinam augurātus dēferātur;

Dē istīs rēbus exspectō tuās litterās, │ I am awaiting your letter about these matters:

[i] quid Arrīus nārret │ what Arius is saying
[ii] quō animō sē dēstitūtum ferat │ in what state of mind he bears his abandonment
[iii] et quī cōnsulēs parentur, │ and which men are being prepared as consuls

[iv] utrum, ut populī sermō, Pompēius et Crassus, an, ut mihi scrībitur, cum Gabīniō Servius Sulpicius,

whether, as popular talk has it, Pompey and Crassus, or, as is written to me, Servius Sulpicius with Gabinius [i.e. two consuls were elected each year, and so Cicero refers to two alternatives for the joint consulship]

[v] et num quae novae lēgēs │ and whether (there are) any new laws,
[vi] et num quid nōvī omnīnō, │ and whether (there is) anything new at all,

[vii] et, quoniam Nepōs proficīscitur, cuinam augurātus dēferātur; │ and, since Nepos is setting out, to whom the office of augur is to be assigned.

Level 3 (review); a Second Latin Reader (Vincent) [18]: Battle avoided by the Romans

Language focus: ablative absolute

https://adckl.blogspot.com/search/label/ablative%20absolute

Primā lūce Considius montem ab hostibus tenērī nuntiāvit. Quibus rēbus nuntiātīs Caesar proelium eō tempore committere nōlēbat: suās cōpiās in proximum collem subdūxit, aciem instrūxit. Inde hostēs secūtus tria milia passuum ab eōrum castrīs castra pōnit. Posterō diē consiliō mūtātō, quod frūmentum colligere voluit, iter ab Helvētiīs avertit atque Bibracte īre contendit. Ea rēs per fugitīvōs hostibus nuntiāta est. Helvētiī Rōmānōs terrērī arbitrātī impetūs in nostrōs ā tergō facere coepērunt.

____________________

At first light Considius reported that the mountain was being held by the enemy. When these things had been reported, Caesar was unwilling to join battle at that time; he led his forces onto the nearest hill and drew up his line of battle. From there, having followed the enemy, he pitches camp three miles from their camp. On the following day, after his plan had been changed, because he wished to collect grain, he turned his march away from the Helvetii and pushed on to Bibracte. This fact was reported to the enemy through deserters. The Helvetii, thinking [literally: having judged] that the Romans were frightened, began to make attacks on our men from the rear.

Level 3+; Subjunctive [69] dependent uses [6] indirect questions (6); utrum … an …

25.07.25: Level 3; pronominal adjectives [6](2); utrum … an …; double questions

https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/04/250725-level-3-pronominal-adjectives-62.html

[1] The construction utrum … an … is used in direct questions to create an alternative or double question:

Utrum ēsūrīs an sītīs? │ Are you hungry or thirsty?

Utrum [i] nescīs, … an [ii] prō nihilō id putās (Cicero) │ Is it that [i] you don’t know or [ii] do you think nothing of it?

[2] an may be repeated if more than two points are being questioned:

Utrum [i] hostem an [ii] vōs an [iii] fortūnam utrīusque populī īgnōrātis (Livy) │ Is it the [i] enemy, [ii] or yourselves, [iii] or the fortune of the two peoples, that you do not know?

[3] a combination of -ne attached to the first word being questioned together with an:

Ēsūrīsne an sītīs? │ Are you hungry or thirsty?

[4] an without utrum may occur:

Dīcam huic, an nōn dīcam? │ Shall I tell him, or not tell him?

[5] These same constructions can be used in indirect questions and, again, the verb of the indirect question is in the subjunctive.

Quaerō, ¦ … [i] utrum is clēmēns ac misericors [ii] an inhūmānissimus et crūdēlissimus esse videātur (Cicero) │ I ask, ¦ [i] whether he might appear to be clement and merciful [ii] or most inhuman and cruel? 

[6] Look out for: necne and an nōn (annōn), both of which mean ‘or not’ and can be used to form the second part of the double question:

Nesciō, ¦ utrum domī sit, annōn. │ I don’t know ¦ whether he’s [ = he might be] at home or not.

[7] Examples

The first two examples below show both an indirect question introduced by an interrogative word and a double question:

(1) Are you as confused as Plautus?

Nunc mī incertumst ¦ abeam an maneam, an adeam an fugiam, ¦ quid agam edepol nesciō (Plautus)

Now I’m uncertain ¦ whether I should go away or I should stay, whether I should approach or whether I should flee—by Pollux, I don’t know ¦ what I should do.

In the first part of the quotation, there is no interrogative word, but simply alternative courses of action being debated:

Nunc mī incertumst ¦ [i] abeam an [ii] maneam …│ I’m uncertain ¦ whether [i] I should go away [ii] or stay …

In the second part of the quotation, an interrogative is used:

quid agam ¦ edepol nesciō │ by Pollux, I don’t know ¦ what I should do.

(2) Similarly, two quotations from Cicero:

Nesciō [1] quid intersit, ¦ [2] utrum nunc veniam, an ad decem annōs (Cicero)

I don’t know [1] what difference it might make, ¦ [2] whether I should come now,  or after ten years.

Mihi mehercule nihil vidēbātur esse, ¦ [1] in quō tantulum interesset ¦ [2] utrum per prōcūrātōrēs agerēs ¦ an per tē ipsum (Cicero)

For the life of me I cannot see any reason ¦ why it should make the least little bit of difference ¦ [2] whether you act by proxy ¦ or in person.

(1)    Here we have two groups of alternative questions:

Mīrāminī satis habuisse eōs quī hoc iūdicium dedērunt id quaerī, ¦ [1] utrum haec tam acerba, tam indigna, tam atrocia facta essent necne, nōn [2] utrum iūre facta an iniūriā? (Cicero)

And do you wonder that those who assigned this trial thought it sufficient that it should be inquired ¦ [1] whether these cruel, and scandalous, and atrocious actions had been done or not; not [2] whether they had been done rightly or wrongfully?

(2)   In this final example, necne appears alone:

Quaesīvī ā Catilīnā in conventū apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cicero)│ I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Laeca's or not.

In other words, alternative indirect questions can be expressed in different ways, but look for the signal words: utrum / an / annōn / necne.

[8] Note: English can use ‘if’ in indirect questions such as this:

Do you know if he speaks English?

I don’t know if he’s English or not.

It would be possible to translate constructions with utrum etc. using ‘if’:

Nesciō, ¦ utrum domī sit, annōn. │ I don’t know if he’s at home or not.

However, the English conjunction if is also used to construct a completely different clause, namely a conditional clause e.g. “If it rains, we won’t go out.” That is not an indirect question, and Latin does not use utrum, an, or necne (annōn) to form clauses of that type.