The Latin Tutorial videos (from Youtube) have a good series concerning the subjunctive. At times, however, the presenter moves into other areas and so the videos uploaded here may be edited to focus only on the point being discussed at this stage, in this case a brief overview of subjunctive usage and the forms of the present subjunctive. The full video is available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HARMeEMRsAg&t=2s
Change the indicative forms of the verb to the present subjunctive forms. Remember: we fear a liar i.e. the letters in bold tell you the changes in the stems for all the conjugations. The answers are given at the end of the post.
1st: -e/ē-
2nd: -ea/eā-
3rd: -a/ā-
3rd-iō / 4th: -ia/iā-
[1] 1st conjugation:
[2] 2nd conjugation:
[3] 3rd conjugation:
[4] 3rd-iō conjugation:
[5] 4th conjugation
____________________
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
The subjunctive has different tenses and those tenses are not confined to specific uses i.e. you will see them operating in a range of contexts. We will begin with the present subjunctive before looking at some uses where it frequently occurs.
[1] All forms of the present subjunctive have the same personal endings as other verb forms:
-m
-s
-t
-mus
-tis
-nt
[2] Image #1: the stems to which those endings are added are different, and the most common way of remembering them is the phrase wE fEAr A lIAr. Note the vowel lengthening in the 2nd person singular and the 1st / 2nd person plural:
1st conjugation: -E- (-ē-)
“wE”: amEm, amēs, amet, amēmus, amētis, ament
2nd conjugation: -ea- (-eā-)
“fEAr”: habEAm, habeās, habeat, habeāmus, habeātis, habeant
3rd conjugation: -a- (-ā-)
“A”: vīvAm, vīvās, vīvat, vīvāmus, vīvātis, vīvant
3rd-iō / 4th conjugation -ia- (-iā-)
“lIAr”: capIAm, capiās, capiat, capiāmus, capiātis, capiant
“lIAr”: audIAm, audiās, audiat, audiāmus, audiātis, audiant
[3] Image #2: Irregular verbs also form their present subjunctives from a single stem + the personal endings:
[i] eō, īre: go
eām, eās, eat, eāmus, eātis, eant
And compounds will be formed in the same way:
[ii] sum, esse: be
sim, sīs, sit, sīmus, sītis, sint
[iii] possum, posse: be able (i.e. formed from sum, esse)
possim, possīs, possit, possīmus, possītis, possint
Bibēbant vīnum, et laudābant deōs suōs aureōs et argenteōs, aereōs, ferreōs, ligneōsque et lapideōs. (Vulgate) │ They drank wine, and praised the gods of gold, and of silver, of brass, of iron, of wood, and of stone.
As in English, Latin can have different ways in which to describe the material from which an object is made. We will take aurum (gold) to show these:
[i] noun
aurum, -ī [2/n]: gold (the precious metal)
aurum mundum: pure gold
mundus, -a, -um: pure
[ii] ē / ex (+ ablative) + noun
dē + ablative may also be used in this sense although ē / ex is more common and will be the one listed in examples:
08.03.24: the ablative of source / material
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/080324-ablative-of-source-material.html
21.05.25: Level 3; summary of the uses of the ablative case [5]: the ablative of source / material
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/02/210525-level-3-summary-of-of-uses-of_25.html
[iii] adjective; -eus, suffix used to from adjectives from nouns
aurum (noun) + -eus > aureus, -a, -um: golden; (made of) gold
Further examples are listed in the separate entries e.g.
08.03.24: adjectives of material
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/04/080324-adjectives-of-material.html
[iv] aurum (noun) + -ātus, -a, -um; the use of this suffix indicates that the object (or person) has the feature of the noun rather than it being made from the raw material:
aurātus, -a, -um: gilded; gold-coloured
Examples:
Veterēs scrībēbant in tabellīs cērātīs (Comenius) │ The Ancients writ in tables (tablets) done over with wax
Aethiopia generat multaque alia mōnstrīs similia, pinnātōs equōs et cornibus armātōs, quōs pēgasōs vocant, (Pliny the Elder) │ Ethiopia produces many other creatures similar to monsters, winged horses armed with horns, which they call Pegasi
The following quotation, from the Satyricon by Petronius, depicts the ostentatious Trimalchio; the impression the latter tries to create is superficial, hence the description of the ring:
Habēbat etiam in minimō digitō sinistrae manūs ānulum grandem subaurātum (Petronius) │On the little finger of his left hand he had an enormous gilt / somewhat gilded ring (sub- indicates that it was ‘slightly’ gilded) i.e. “All that glisters is not gold”
[v] fiō, fierī, factus sum [3-iō/deponent]: become; be made
focus on the participle: factus, -a, -um i.e. (having been) made
Metals │ metalla
Lead, 1. is soft, and heavy. │ plumbum, 1. est molle & grave.
Iron, 2. is hard, and steel, 3. harder. │ ferrum, 2. est dūrum, & c(h)alybs, 3. dūrior.
They make tankards (or cans), 4. of tin. │ faciunt cantharōs, 4. ē stannō.
Kettles, 5. of copper, │ ahēna, 5. ē cuprō,
Candlesticks, 6. of latten*, │ candēlābra, 6. ex orichalcō,*
Dollers, 7. of silver, │ thalerōs, 7. ex argentō,
Ducats and crown-pieces, 8. of gold. │ scūtātōs et corōnātōs, 8. ex aurō.
Quick-silver is always liquid, and eateth thorow (through) metals. │ argentum vīvum, semper liquet, & corrōdit metalla.
[1]
*orichalcum, -ī [2/n]: the translator actually used the word ‘Latin’ to describe this metal (maybe a 17th century auto-correct!), but I’ve changed it to what it should be i.e. latten; in Roman times it referred to yellow copper ore, or an alloy of gold and copper; Late / Mediaeval Latin: brass
argentum, -ī [2/n]: silver
aurum, -ī [2/n]: gold
chalybs, chalybis [3/m]: steel
cuprum, -ī [2/n]: (Late Latin) copper
ferrum, -ī [2/n]: iron
metallum, -ī [2/n]: metal; in Classical Latin it most often referred to a mine from where the metals were quarried
plumbum, -ī [2/n]: lead
stannum, -ī [2/n]: tin
[2]
ahēnum: alternative spelling of aēnum, -ī [2/n]: copper vessel, cauldron (i.e. not the kettles we envisage today; see #5 in the original image); in Roman times it was hung over a fire and used in boiling
The text refers to contemporary coinage (not, of course, from the Roman period):
[i] thalerus, -ī [2/m]: thaler, monetary unit used in central and northern European countries > Gmn: T(h)aler > Engl. dollar
[ii] an important feature of Latin appears in two references to coins in the text (which will be discussed more in the next post):
(1) scūtātus, -a, -um: (literally) armed with a shield < scūtum, -ī [2/n]: shield
(2) coronātus, -a, -um: (literally) crowned < corona, -ae [1/f]: crown
i.e. these terms describe features of several different coins
in Mediaeval and later texts:
(1) any coin whose obverse showed a coat of arms or shield
nummus scutātus = a coin with a shield on it > Fr. écu; Port. escudo
(2) any coin with the design of a crown on it: nummus coronātus
(3) the term ‘ducat’ used as the translation: ducātus, -ūs [4/m]: (Late / Mediaeval) leadership; duchy. The coin originated in Venice in 1284 and although Venice was never a duchy, the coin acquired that name and was one of the most trusted trade coins in Europe
[3]
dūrus, -a, -um: hard
gravis, -e: heavy
mollis, -e: soft
[4] Apart from the abbreviations of the chemical elements, bear in mind the great number of English derivatives. While these derivatives may have had ‘journeys’ through, for example, Old French – and their meanings may have changed – those meanings have never deviated so far that you cannot identify the origin.
An interesting feature is the co-existence of Latin and Germanic words in English where Latin did not replace the original Old English word, but is used in words related to it even if some of them are not common:
Old English: heard
La: dūrus, -a, -um: hard > durable; endure
Old English: hefiġ
La: gravis, -e: heavy > grave (serious)
Old English: sēfte (sōfte)
La: mollis, -e: soft > mollify (soften)
Old English: (various spellings) īsern
La: ferrum, -ī: iron > ferrous; ferric
Old English: gold
La: aurum, -ī [2/n]: gold > aurous (containing gold)
Old English: lēad
La: plumbum, -ī: lead > plumber c.f. plumbārius, -ī [2/m], but we also use leadworker; plumb line; plummet
Old English: tin
La: stannum, -ī [2/m]: tin > stannic (containing tin)
Before moving on to the next (lengthy) topic, it is worth pausing to reflect on whose voices we usually hear when we study the ancient world.
At university I read Bertolt Brecht’s poem Fragen eines lesenden Arbeiters (Questions from a Worker Who Reads), a text that repeatedly challenges how history is written and remembered. The poem opens with a deceptively simple question:
Brecht immediately contrasts the reality of labour with the way history is recorded:
The poem presses the point further. Cities are destroyed and rebuilt, empires rise and fall, and yet the people who physically made this happen are absent from the narrative:
Triumphs are commemorated in stone, but the builders remain invisible:
Brecht’s questions become increasingly pointed, even ironic:
The poem ends with a relentless accumulation of victories — and questions:
There is no doubt where Brecht’s sympathies lie. He condemns a historical narrative that celebrates the “great and the good” while ignoring the labour that enabled their achievements. From a modern perspective we may feel that this is obvious, but the poem exposes how strongly historical writing — ancient and modern — directs our attention toward certain individuals and away from others.
At the same time, Brecht’s position is itself not without bias. Societies do require leaders, and ancient authors are capable of recognising more than just elite heroics. Caesar, for example, praises not only the bravery and endurance of his own soldiers, but also the determination of the enemy. Roman culture itself did not solely glorify gods and emperors; it also acknowledged the realities of daily life, work and production.
This tension is particularly relevant to the study of Latin. When we read Classical Latin literature, we overwhelmingly read the voices of senators, generals and intellectuals: Catullus, Cicero, Seneca, Tacitus — figures who dominate politics, war and philosophy. These authors are essential, but they do not represent the whole of Roman experience.
Beyond the battlefield and the senate lies another world: the world of cooking, shopping, farming, building, medicine and manufacturing — the world the Romans talked about every day. These voices are quieter, but they survive. They appear in Apicius’ cookbook, in Celsus’ medical writings, in Vitruvius’ detailed descriptions of building materials and techniques, in agricultural treatises, and in Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, which attempts to catalogue almost everything.
The Romans were not only politicians and philosophers. They were stonemasons and shipbuilders, chefs and launderers; they sold meat and pillows; they built ships, aqueducts and roads. They worked with brick, marble, clay, lead and concrete. When we explore this area of language, we acquire not only a wide and practical vocabulary, but also a clearer understanding of ordinary Roman life — not just their victories.
The next topic therefore focuses on describing objects and materials: the many terms Latin uses to describe what things are made of, how they are constructed, and how they are used. In doing so, we move closer to the people who built Rome — even if their names were never written in the books.
You first need to become familiar with two terms: (i) the indicative mood and (ii) the subjunctive mood.
The word mood does not refer to a specific tense. Each mood contains its own set of tenses — for example: present indicative, present subjunctive, imperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and so on. The term is not easy to define neatly, but it refers to the speaker’s attitude toward the action or state — the perspective from which the action is expressed.
[i] All the verb tenses so far – both active and passive – have been in the indicative mood. They express real actions or states, for example:
Rōma in Ītaliā est. │ Rome is in Italy.
Rōmae habitābam. │ I used to live in Rome.
Mīles rēgem interfēcit. │ The soldier killed the king.
Mīlitēs hostēs interfēcerant. │ The soldiers had killed the enemy.
Rūs crās ībō. │ Tomorrow I’ll go to the country.
Vēxillum ventō movētur. │ The flag is being moved by the wind.
Gladiō vulnerātus est. │ He was killed by a sword.
Ab hostibus captus erat. │ He had been captured by the enemy.
If, for example, you look up interfēcit in Wiktionary, you will find its description: “third person singular perfect active indicative of interficiō”
[ii] The subjunctive mood, by contrast, does not express actions as real, factual events. If you look up interficiat, you will find: “third person singular present active subjunctive of interficiō.” What’s the difference?
Image #1: A good starting point is to look at some examples in English which, although not usually labeled as “subjunctive,” convey subjunctive ideas. First, compare Column A with Column B(1). Then, look at the headings in B(2), which identify the speaker’s “attitude” or perspective.
Consider the terms in B(2), for example: possibility, suggestion, hypothetical, unfulfilled — unreal. Pause and ask yourself: have any of these actions actually happened, or can the speaker guarantee that they will happen?
For instance, is “Yes, I can help you” the same as “Well, yes, I would like to help you”? Or is “He spoke clearly and everybody understood him” the same as “He spoke clearly hoping that everybody might be able to understand him”? Clearly not.
This is why English often adds modals — might, could, would — to give a different perspective on what is being said. The aim of the examples in the table is to give you a “feel” for the subjunctive. Sometimes translations of Latin subjunctives won’t use words like might, could, or would (though many do), but they reflect the way the subjunctive shapes the speaker’s thinking.
Image #2: In general, the indicative describes reality — what has happened or can be stated as fact — while the subjunctive expresses non-reality, uncertainty, desire, or suggestion.
Those headings – and others – are used to categorise different uses of the Latin subjunctive, and we will look at them all individually.
Latin for Learners is a community in which I occasionally share my own experiences with the language and point out common pitfalls—many of which waste time and can make the climb towards mastery seem impossibly steep.
The subjunctive is a prime example. The reflections below, aimed especially at independent learners, apply not only to the subjunctive but to many areas of Latin.
Imagine two chess players discussing a brilliant move by a Grand Master. Neither needs to define what a pawn is; each naturally pitches the conversation at the other’s level. They “mirror” each other.
Image #1: In some Latin discussion groups, this mirroring breaks down. A beginner’s straightforward question is sometimes answered with a dense, highly technical explanation packed with exceptions—useful information in itself, but delivered at the wrong level and at the wrong time.
Image #2
[1] A crucial feature of the subjunctive is that it has a wide range of distinct uses, each with its own traditional name. Unlike, for example, the future tense—which has a relatively straightforward and easily understood function—the subjunctive does not operate in a single, uniform way.
[2] Most writers on Latin grammar follow a set of conventional labels (the image gives some of the common terms and key words you will encounter). However, they may disagree about which particular “box” a given subjunctive belongs in, and some authors group several uses together while others separate them. This can lead to long, detailed, and ultimately time-wasting discussions for a beginner. Similarly, be cautious with digressions such as “there’s an exception,” “you may sometimes find,” or “Plautus occasionally uses…”.
Focus instead on the core features of each subjunctive use, rather than wandering down every side road.
Image #3: The key point — and it has been the key point of every post about this language — is not to be overwhelmed. Don’t try to gather every piece of information about the subjunctive at once. Don’t jump in at the deep end.
The subjunctive matters because it is an integral part of Latin language and literature; it permeates the writing of the authors. One of the first pieces of authentic Latin you may encounter is Catullus 5:
Vīvāmus, mea Lesbia, atque amēmus, │ Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love,
rūmōrēsque senum sevēriōrum │ and the rumours of rather stern old men
omnēs ūnīus aestimēmus assis! │ let us value them all at just one penny!
All three of the verbs in bold are subjunctives.
All three bold verbs are subjunctives.
Pliny’s first Vesuvius letter to Tacitus opens with two more:
Petis ut tibi avunculī meī exitum scrībam, quō vērius trādere posterīs possīs. │ You ask that I write to you about the death of my uncle, so that you might be able to hand it down more accurately to posterity
In Spielberg’s ‘Jaws’ Quint states: “Sometimes that shark would go away, sometimes he wouldn’t go away.” The subjunctives won’t go away – but they’re only sharks if you let them become so!
The posts are structured as follows:
[i] What is the subjunctive?
The term subjunctive refers not to a tense but to a mood. In broad terms, it expresses ideas such as possibility, intention, potentiality, and hypothetical or unreal situations. These concepts, although initially somewhat vague, are more familiar to speakers of French, German, and Spanish, whose languages retain full sets of subjunctive forms that often parallel Latin usage. English, however, has only remnants of the subjunctive, so we rely on English translations that suggest subjunctive meaning rather than reproduce it directly. The first post will therefore explain how these ideas can be conveyed in English before we turn to the Latin forms themselves.
[ii] The subjunctive has several tenses, each introduced separately, with practice in distinguishing their forms. Because these tenses are employed in different ways, a tense will first be presented in one particular use but will reappear in later posts as additional uses are introduced.
[iii] The uses of the subjunctive—of which there are many—are divided into two broad categories: independent and dependent. These terms are explained, and the uses are presented under each category. However, although such uses can be taught as separate rules, they rarely appear in isolation in real Latin; authors combine them freely. Substantial contextual practice is therefore essential.
[iv] Each use is discussed in detail with textbook examples, short quotations, and simple follow-up exercises. English translations are provided that clearly differentiate the uses, even if they sound a little archaic. Links to video resources are also included.
The subjunctive is often left until (almost) last in a standard Latin grammar book, and there are sound reasons for that:
[1] The subjunctive is formed from endings that you have already seen. However, they are used differently and so it’s important to be familiar with the endings before you apply them to the subjunctive.
[2] For native English speakers at least, the term ‘subjunctive’ can seem like a closed book.
[3] Unlike many other grammatical features of Latin, the subjunctive performs a whole range of functions. At first this can seem overwhelming but keep it slow and steady!
The Strawberry Fields Subjunctive
We all remember things in different ways. Some memory aids are well known — Mr. Roy G. Biv for the colours of the rainbow (Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo and Violet), or Every Good Boy Deserves Favour for the notes on the line of the treble clef. Others are very personal, even a bit peculiar, but that doesn’t matter. If it helps you remember, it works.
For example, in Malay kiri means “left” and kanan means “right”. By inserting an extra n, I used the name of the opera singer Kiri te Kana(n)wa to remember which was which: kiri to the left of her name, kana(n) to the right. Bizarre, perhaps — but unforgettable!
When faced with so many different subjunctive uses, which can initially feel unrelated or difficult to translate precisely, two phrases – one a movie title and one a line from a Beatles’ song – summarised, for me, two important connecting features of this lengthy and sprawling subject.
[1] Harrison Ford & Michelle Pfeiffer: What Lies Beneath (to be fair, the subjunctive isn’t as creepy as the film poster!) i.e. What attitude or underlying meaning lies beneath a subjunctive?
[2] Beatles:
Let me take you down / 'Cause I'm going to strawberry fields / Nothing is real
The idea of something “vague”, “not clearly defined”, or “not presented as real” fits the subjunctive perfectly.
Therefore, the meaning that lies beneath the subjunctive is not real even if that is not always directly expressed in the English translation.
As the posts progress we will look slowly at the subjunctive, how it is formed and how it’s used.
Level 3+ is designed as a bridge course to help you move from intermediate Latin towards more advanced study. At this stage, you will meet the final major features of Latin grammar, most importantly the subjunctive. This is a wide-ranging and sometimes challenging topic, but it already appears in UK GCSE Latin and becomes more demanding at post-16 level (AS/A level).
You will also find that the subjunctive is used constantly in original Latin literature, which will be the main focus of Level 4. Level 3+ therefore prepares you for reading authentic texts with confidence. If you go on to read authors such as Cicero, you will quickly discover that the subjunctive is something you cannot avoid.
Throughout this level, work on the subjunctive will be reinforced through a wide range of exercises, authentic quotations, and extended passages. The aim is to help you recognise and understand the subjunctive in context, rather than learning it purely as a set of isolated rules, and to translate it accurately and confidently.
You will also be introduced to conditional clauses, which are closely linked to the subjunctive and form an important step towards more advanced Latin syntax.
Alongside this grammatical work, you will practise GCSE-style examination questions and encounter material suitable for the higher stages of the National Latin Exam (NLE), helping you prepare both for assessment and for further progression in Latin.
You’ll see it’s a bit ‘foggy’ at the other end – rather like the subjunctive!
A SURPRISING DISCUSSION BETWEEN GENERALS
The Roman Scipio and Carthaginian Hannibal meet in their old age.
[line 1] Post Bellum Poenicum Secundum, scrīptum est et Hannibalem et Scīpiōnem simul forte (1)
[line 2] esse in Syriā. Quamquam fuerant inimīcī ācerrimī (2), tamen eō tempore saepe familiāriter
[line 3] colloquēbantur (2). Renārrābant multa et mīra dē bellō et dē virtūtibus antīquīs. Ōlim
[line 4] Scīpiō, cōgitāns dē victōriā suā Zamae, Hannibalem rogāvit, "Quis est optimus imperātor
[line 5] omnium?" Statim Hannibal respondit, "Alexander Magnus." Tum Scīpiō rogāvit,
[line 6] “Quem pōnis in secundō locō?” "Pyrrhum, sine dubiō," respondit Hannibal. Ubi Scīpiō
[line 7] tertium nōmen quaesīvit, Hannibal suum dīxit. Scīpiō cum rīsū exclāmāvit, "Mehercule!
[line 8] Ego tē vīcī!" Hannibal placidē respondit, "Vērum est. Sed sī tē vīcissem (5), nōmen meum
[line 9] suprā etiam Alexandrī nōmen posuissem! (6)"
(1) forte: by chance
(2) ācerrimī: very bitter
(3) colloquēbantur: they used to converse
(4) Zamae = at Zama
(5) vīcissem = I had defeated
(6) posuissem = I would have placed
29. We learn in lines 1-2 (Post…Syriā) that Hannibal and Scipio
A) fought their last battle in Syria
B) had agreed to meet in Syria
C) were both born in Syria many years before
D) happened to be in Syria at the same time
30. Quamquam (line 2) is best translated
A) whichever
B) however
C) although
D) still
31. According to lines 2-3, what is the relationship between the two men?
A) They were still bitter enemies and often insulted each other.
B) Despite being former enemies, they found they had a lot to discuss.
C) They were unfriendly to each other, speaking only when necessary.
D) While they lived in the same town, they only spoke through messengers.
32. In line 3, what are the two men discussing?
A) the very beautiful landscape of Asia
B) many of their fallen comrades
C) things they missed from their homelands
D) many aspects of war and courage
33. In line 4, what is the best translation of suā?
A) her
B) himself
C) their
D) his own
34. What does Scipio ask Hannibal in lines 4-5?
A) Who is the best general of all?
B) What was the greatest victory of all?
C) Who had the bravest army of all?
D) Which of their native lands is the most powerful?
35. In lines 5-6, what does Scipio do upon hearing Hannibal’s answer?
A) nods silently
B) moves to a new location
C) asks about the second position
D) offers his conflicting opinion
36. What does Hannibal give as his answer in lines 6-7 (Ubi…dīxit)?
A) Scipio himself
B) an unknown name
C) his own name
D) his father’s name
37. Why does this answer surprise Scipio?
A) Scipio was amazed Hannibal would give any credit to him.
B) Scipio expected that his own name would be placed before that of Hannibal.
C) Scipio didn't recognize the unfamiliar name.
D) Scipio didn't understand why Hannibal repeated the question.
38. Which noun is NOT in the same case as the others?
A) victōriā (line 4)
B) Scīpiō (line 5)
C) dubiō (line 6)
D) rīsū (line 7)
39. According to line 8, how does Hannibal react when Scipio shouts “Ego tē vīcī!”
A) with anger
B) with confusion
C) calmly
D) triumphantly
40. What is Hannibal’s general point in the last sentence (Sed…posuissem)?
A) If Hannibal had defeated Scipio, then Hannibal would consider himself above Alexander.
B) If Scipio had been defeated, Hannibal would be second only to Alexander.
C) If Hannibal had had the chance, he could have beaten Alexander himself.
D) If Scipio had lost, Scipio’s name would not even be on the list.
____________________
29. D; 30. C; 31. B; 32. D; 33. D; 34. A; 35. C; 36. C; 37. B; 38. B; 39. C; 40. A
29. D: happened to be in Syria at the same time; simul forte esse in Syriā
30. C: although
31. B: Despite being former enemies, they found they had a lot to discuss; Quamquam fuerant inimīcī ācerrimī tamen eō tempore saepe familiāriter colloquēbantur. │ Although they had been very bitter enemies, nevertheless at that time they often used to converse in a familiar manner.
32. D: many aspects of war and courage; Renārrābant … dē bellō et dē virtūtibus antīquīs.
33. D: his own
34. A: Who is the best general of all?; Quis est optimus imperātor omnium?
35. C: asks about the second position; Quem pōnis in secundō locō?
36. C: his own name; Hannibal suum dīxit
37. B: Scipio expected that his own name would be placed before that of Hannibal i.e. Scipio had conquered Hannibal; Scīpiō cum rīsū exclāmāvit, "Mehercule! Ego tē vīcī!"
38. B: Scipiō; nominative case; the other three are in the ablative
39. C: calmly; placidē respondit
40. A: If Hannibal had defeated Scipio, then Hannibal would consider himself above Alexander; Sed (1) sī tē vīcissem, (2) nōmen meum suprā etiam Alexandrī nōmen posuissem! │ But (1) if I had defeated you, (2) I would have placed my name above even Alexander’s name!
After the Second Punic War, it was written that both Hannibal and Scipio were by chance in Syria at the same time. Although they had been very bitter enemies, nevertheless at that time they used to converse often in a familiar manner. They were retelling many (and) wonderful things about war and about ancient virtues/courage. One day Scipio, while thinking about his victory at Zama, asked Hannibal, “Who is the best general of all?” Immediately Hannibal responded, “Alexander the Great.” Then Scipio asked, “Whom do you put in second place?” “Pyrrhus, without a doubt,” responded Hannibal. When Scipio asked a third name, Hannibal said his own (name). Scipio exclaimed with a laugh, “By Hercules! I defeated you!” Hannibal calmly responded, “It is true. But if I had defeated you, I would have placed my name above even Alexander’s name!”
Questions [25] – [28]
25. A; 26. A; 27. C; 28. D
[25] Who was known for leading a nearly-successful rebellion of slaves in Italy in 73-71 BC?
A) Spartacus B) Julius Caesar C) Tarquinius Superbus D) Hannibal; A: Spartacus
Spartacus, Thracian gladiator who led a slave uprising during the Roman Republic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spartacus
Gaius Julius Caesar, Roman general and statesman; life: 100 – 44 BC (assassinated); dictator: 49–44 BC
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar
Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, seventh and final king of Rome; reign: 534–509 BC; establishment of the Roman Republic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus
Hannibal, Carthaginian general and statesman; life: 247 BC – c. 183–181 BC; commanded the forces of Carthage against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Punic_War
25.08.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; A First Latin Reader (Vincent) [13]
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/07/230824-level-2-practice-in-reading.html
27.08.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; A First Latin Reader (Vincent) [14]
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/07/250824-level-2-practice-in-reading.html
29.08.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; A First Latin Reader (Vincent) [15]
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/07/270824-level-2-practice-in-reading.html
31.08.24: Level 2; Practice in reading the perfect tense; A First Latin Reader (Vincent) [16]
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/07/310824-level-2-practice-in-reading.html
[26] The English word pejorative derives from the Latin adjective meaning
A) worse B) greater C) smaller D) more; A: worse
malus, -a, -um: bad > peior [m/f], peius [n]: worse
12.11.24: level 2; degrees of comparison [5]; irregular comparatives
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/09/121124-level-2-degrees-of-comparison-5.html
[27] As Pliny the Elder sailed toward Mt. Vesuvius, what did he reportedly exclaim in hopes that his courage would be rewarded?
A) Manus manum lavat! B) Ignōrantia lēgis nēminem excūsat! C) Fortēs fortūna iuvat! D) Ab ōvō usque ad mālum!; C: Fortēs fortūna iuvat!
Pliny the Younger responded to the request of the historian Tacitus that he provide him details of the death of his uncle, Pliny the Elder, during the eruption of Vesuvius. Two letters were written, and in the first, Pliny the Elder, as he crosses by boat from Misenum to the coastline by Vesuvius, rejects the suggestion of the helmsman that they turn back, and is quoted as saying: Fortēs fortūna iuvat! │ Fortune favours / helps the brave!
Although the proverb, still extensively used, is [i] first attested in 151BC in Terence’s comedy Phormio, it is [ii] its use in Vergil’s Aeneid which would particularly resonate with Tacitus:
[i]
Tantō magis tē advigilāre aequum est. Fortēs fortūna adiuvat. [Terence: Phormio 1.4.25] │… the more need have you to be on your guard; fortune helps the brave.
[ii]
Ultrō occurrāmus ad undam, │ And let’s meet them in the waves,
dum trepidī ēgressīsque labant vestīgia prīma. │ while they’re unsure and their first steps falter as they land.
Audentīs Fortūna iuvat, │ Fortune favours the brave.
[Vergil: Aeneid 10.284]
manus manum lavat │literally: a hand washes a hand; Roman proverb = people help each other out; mutual cooperation
ignōrantia lēgis nēminem excūsat │ ignorance of the law excuses no one; legal principle = people are responsible for following the law even if they claim they didn't know it
ab ōvō usque ad mālum │ literally: from the egg all the way to the apple = from start to finish; refers to the traditional sequence of a meal
[28] The common Latin abbreviation N.B. stands for
A) Nūllī Bovēs B) Nihil Bonī C) Nōbīscum Bibite D) Nōtā Bene; D: Nōtā Bene (note well; take note)
Questions [22] – [24]
22. A; 23. B; 24. B
[22] Which hero was set adrift on the sea as an infant, grew up to slay a hideous monster, saved a princess chained to a rock, and then turned his enemy to stone?
A) Perseus B) Theseus C) Oedipus D) Jason; A: Perseus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseus
05.06.25: Level 3; Ritchie; Fābulae Facilēs; Perseus [1]: Fīlius Iovis
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/050625-level-3-ritchie-fabulae-faciles.html
08.06.25: Level 3; Ritchie; Fābulae Facilēs; Perseus [2]: Contrā Medūsam
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/080625-level-3-ritchie-fabulae-faciles.html
11.06.25: Level 3; Ritchie; Fābulae Facilēs; Perseus [3]: Andromeda Servanda [1]
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/xxyy25-level-3-ritchie-fabulae-faciles.html
11.06.25: Level 3; Ritchie; Fābulae Facilēs; Perseus [4]: Andromeda Servanda [2]
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2025/03/100625-level-3-ritchie-fabulae-faciles.html
Theseus, legendary king who killed the Minotaur
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theseus
Oedipus, mythical king of Thebes; unknowingly fulfilled a prophecy; killed his father and married his mother
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oedipus
Jason, Greek mythological hero; leader of the Argonauts; quest for the Golden Fleece
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Fleece
05.03.25: H & B; level 2; reading; the quest of the Golden Fleece
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/12/050325-h-b-level-2-reading-quest-of.html
[23] Ubi sum? Videō virum quī strigilem et unguentum in apodytērium portat. Mox in palaestrā mē exercēbō. Deinde in frīgidārium dēscendam!
A) in forō B) in thermīs C) in basilicā D) in amphitheātrō; B: in thermīs
19.04.24: bath time!
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/05/190424-bath-time.html
[i] thermae, -ārum [1/f/pl/]: warm baths (natural or man-made); the question refers to Roman public baths which had several sections and could also include a place for exercising
[ii] strigilis, -is [3/f]: strigil; part of the bathing routine in ancient Rome involved cleaning the body with oil. Having rubbed in the oil – [iii] unguentum, -ī [2/n] – a strigil was used to scrape away any excess as well as any dead skin and dirt. The image is an example from the 1st century CE.
[iv] apodytērium, -ī [2/n] (from Ancient Greek"undressing room") was the main entry into the thermae (public baths), and comprised a large changing room with cubicles or shelves where where clothing and other belongings could be stored while bathing.
[v] palaestra, -ae [1/f]: exercise area next to the public baths
29.12.24: level 1; topic; school [13]; sports and exercise [1]
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/10/291224-level-1-topic-school-13-sports.html
[vi] frīgidārium, -ī [2/n]: from frīgidus, -a, -um, the frigidarium contained a large pool of cold water for cooling off after the heat of the caldarium and tepidarium.
[24] Which powerful god was the father of the heroes Hercules and Perseus, and of the deities Mars, Apollo, and Diana?
A) Pluto B) Jupiter C) Neptune D) Saturn; B: Jupiter
28.06.24: Mythology [1]; who’s who?
https://adckl.blogspot.com/2024/06/280624-mythology-1-whos-who.html
Pluto, Greek and Roman god of the Underworld
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto_(mythology)
Jupiter, chief deity in Roman religion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_(god)
Neptune, god of the sea
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune_(mythology)
Saturn, god of wealth, time, agriculture
